High density non-volatile memory device

ABSTRACT

This invention provides novel high density memory devices (FIG.  3 ) that are electrically addressable permitting effective reading and writing, that provide a high memory density (102), that provide a high degree of fault tolerance, and that are amenable to efficient chemical synthesis and chip fabrication. The devices arc intrinsically latchable, defect tolerant, and support destructive or non-destructive read cycles. In a preferred embodiment, the device comprises a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states wherein data is stored in said oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a filing under 35 U.S.C. §371 of PCT application PCT/US00/17847, filed on Jun. 28, 2000, which is a CIP of U.S. Ser. No. 09/346,221, filed on Jul. 1, 1999 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,208,553, and Ser. No. 09/484,394, filed on Jan. 14, 2000 U.S. Pat. No. 6,324,091 & Ser. No. 09/346,228 Jul. 1, 1999 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,381,169, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant Number N00014-99-1-0357 from the Office of Naval Research. The Government of the United States of America may have certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to memory devices. In particular this invention provides a nonvolatile electronic memory device capable of storing information in extremely high density.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Basic functions of a computer include information processing and storage. In typical computer systems, these arithmetic, logic, and memory operations are performed by devices that are capable of reversibly switching between two states often referred to as “0” and “1.” In most cases, such switching devices are fabricated from semiconducting devices that perform these various functions and are capable of switching between two states at a very high speed using minimum amounts of electrical energy. Thus, for example, transistors and transistor variants perform the basic switching and storage functions in computers.

Because of the huge data storage requirements of modem computers, a new, compact, low-cost, very high capacity, high speed memory configuration is needed. To reach this objective, molecular electronic switches, wires, microsensors for chemical analysis, and opto-electronic components for use in optical computing have been pursued. The principal advantages of using molecules in these applications are high component density (upwards of 10¹⁸ bits per square centimeter), increased response speeds, and high energy efficiency.

A variety of approaches have been proposed for molecular-based memory devices. While these approaches generally employ molecular architectures that can be switched between two different states, all of the approaches described to date have intrinsic limitations making their uses in computational devices difficult or impractical.

For example, such approaches to the production of molecular memories have involved photochromic dyes, electrochromic dyes, redox dyes, and molecular machines. Each of these approaches, however, has intrinsic limitations that ultimately render it unsuitable for use in molecular memories. For example, photochromic dyes change conformation in response to the absorption of light (e.g. cis-trans interconversion of an alkene, ring opening of a spiropyran, interconversion between excited-states in bacteriorhodopsin, etc.). Typically, the molecular structure of the dye is interconverted between two states that have distinct spectral properties.

Reading and writing data with such photochromic dyes requires use of light, often in the visible region (400–700 nm). Light-mediated data storage has intrinsic diffraction-limited size constraints. Moreover, most photochromic schemes are limited to scanning and interrogating dyes deposited on a surface and are not amenable to 3-D data storage. Even with near-field optical approaches, which might allow reliable encoding/reading of data elements of 100×100 nm dimensions (Nieto-Vesperinas and Garcia, N., eds. (1996) Optics at the Nanometer Scale, NATO ASI Series E, Vol. 319, Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht) the inherent restricted dimensionality (2-D) limits data density to 10¹⁰ bits/cm². Strategies for 3-dimensional reading and writing of photochromic systems have been proposed that rely on two-photon excitation of dyes to encode data, and one-photon excitation to read the data (Birge et al. (1994) Amer. Sci. 82: 349–355, Parthenopoulos and Rentzepis (1989) Science, 245: 843–845), but it is believed that no high-density memory cubes have reached prototype stage in spite of the passage of at least a decade since their initial proposition. In addition, it is noted that these dyes often exhibit relatively slow switching times ranging from microsecond to millisecond durations.

Electrochromic dyes have been developed that undergo a slight change in absorption spectrum upon application of an applied electric field (Liptay (1969) Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engi. 8: 177–188). The dyes must be oriented in a fixed direction with respect to the applied field. Quite high fields (>10⁷ V/cm) must be applied to observe an altered absorption spectrum which can result in heat/power dissipation problems. In addition, the change in the absorption spectrum is typically quite small, which can present detection difficulties. The dyes revert to the initial state when the applied field is turned off.

Redox dyes have been developed that undergo a change in absorption spectrum upon chemical or electrochemical reduction (typically a 2-electron, 2-proton reduction) (Otsuki et al. (1996) Chem. Lett. 847–848). Such systems afford bistable states (e.g., quinone/hydroquinone, azo/hydrazo). Redox dyes have only been examined in solution studies, where they have been proposed for applications as switches and sensors (de Silva et al. (1997) Chem. Rev. 97: 1515–1566). On a solid substrate, electrochemical reduction would need to be accompanied by a source of protons. The latter requirement may be difficult to achieve on a solid substrate. Furthermore, any optical reading scheme would pose the same 2-D limitations as described for photochromic dyes.

Yet another approach involves the design of molecular machines (Anell et al. (1992) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 114: 193–218). These elegant molecular architectures have moving parts that can be switched from one position to another by chemical or photochemical means. The chemically induced systems have applications as sensors but are not practical for memory storage, while the photochemically induced systems have the same fundamental limitations as photochromic dyes. Moreover, methods have not yet been developed for delineating the conformation/structure of the molecular machine that are practical in any device applications. ¹H NMR spectroscopy, for example, is clearly the method of choice for elucidating structure/conformation for molecules in solution, but is totally impractical for interrogating a molecular memory element. None of the current architectures for molecular machines has been designed for assembly on a solid substrate, an essential requirement in a viable device.

In summary, photochromic dyes, electrochromic dyes, redox-sensitive dyes, and molecular machines all have fundamental limitations that have precluded their application as viable memory elements. These molecular architectures are typically limited by reading/writing constraints. Furthermore, even in cases where the effective molecular bistability is obtained, the requirement for photochemical reading restricts the device architecture to a 2-dimensional thin film. The achievable memory density of such a film is unlikely to exceed 10¹⁰ bits/cm². Such limitations greatly diminish the appeal of these devices as viable molecular memory elements.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention provides novel high density memory devices that are electrically addressable permitting effective reading and writing, that provide a high memory density (e.g., 10¹⁵ bits/cm³), that provide a high degree of fault tolerance, and that are amenable to efficient chemical synthesis and chip fabrication. The devices are intrinsically latchable, defect tolerant, and support destructive or non-destructive read cycles.

In a preferred embodiment, this invention provides an apparatus for storing data (e.g., a “storage cell”). The storage cell includes a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a “storage medium” having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states where data is stored in the (preferably non-neutral) oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode. In preferred storage cells, the storage medium stores data at a density of at least one bit, preferably at a density of at least 2 bits, more preferably at a density of at least 3 bits, and most preferably at a density of at least 5, 8, 16, 32, or 64 bits per molecule. Thus, preferred storage media have at least 2, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 or 256 different and distinguishable oxidation states. In particularly preferred embodiments, the bits are all stored in non-neutral oxidation states. In a most preferred embodiment, the different and distinguishable oxidation states of the storage medium can be set by a voltage difference no greater than about 5 volts, more preferably no greater than about 2 volts, and most preferably no greater than about 1 volt.

The storage medium is electrically coupled to the electrode(s) by any of a number of convenient methods including, but not limited to, covalent linkage (direct or through a linker), ionic linkage, non-ionic “bonding”, simple juxtaposition/apposition of the storage medium to the electrode(s), or simple proximity to the electrode(s) such that electron tunneling between the medium and the electrode(s) can occur. The storage medium can contain or be juxtaposed to or layered with one or more dielectric material(s). Preferred dielectric materials are imbedded with counterions (e.g. Nafion). The storage cells of this invention are fully amenable to encapsulation (or other packaging) and can be provided in a number of forms including, but not limited to, an integrated circuit or as a component of an integrated circuit, a non-encapsulated “chip”, etc. In some embodiments, the storage medium is electronically coupled to a second electrode that is a reference electrode. In certain preferred embodiments, the storage medium is present in a single plane in the device. The apparatus of this invention can include the storage medium present at a multiplicity of storage locations, and in certain configurations, each storage location and associated electrode(s) forms a separate storage cell. The storage present on a single plane in the device or on multiple planes and said storage locations are present on multiple planes of said device. Virtually any number (e.g., 16, 32, 64, 128, 512, 1024, 4096, etc.) of storage locations and/or storage cells can be provided in the device. Each storage location can be addressed by a single electrode or by two or more electrodes. In other embodiments, a single electrode can address multiple storage locations and/or multiple storage cells.

In preferred embodiments, one or more of the electrode(s) is connected to a voltage source (e.g. output of an integrated circuit, power supply, potentiostat, microprocessor (CPU), etc.) that can provide a voltage/signal for writing, reading, or refreshing the storage cell(s). One or more of the electrode(s) is preferably connected to a device (e.g., a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, a potentiometric device, etc.) to read the oxidation state of said storage medium. In particularly preferred embodiments, the device is an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter. Various signal processing methods can be provided to facilitate readout in the time domain or in the frequency domain. Thus, in some embodiments, the readout device(s) provide a Fourier transform (or other frequency analysis) of the output signal from said electrode. In certain preferred embodiments, the device refreshes the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading said oxidation state.

In order to simplify construction of the arrays for molecular based information storage, in certain embodiments, this invention describes the use of polymeric molecules having multiple oxidation states where the monomeric subunits comprising the polymers are tightly coupled (e.g. directly linked as opposed to linking through a linker). The “tight coupling” is manifested as a splitting in redox potentials of the structurally identical subunits. Thus, for example, combination of two identical subunits each having two identical non-zero oxidation states can result in a dimer having four different and distinguishable non-zero oxidation states. This greatly simplifies fabrication of a storage molecule as, in this instance, only a single type of subunit need be synthesized. Thus, in one embodiment, this invention provides an apparatus for storing data comprising a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium comprising a storage molecule having a first subunit and a second subunit (i.e. at least two subunits) wherein the first and second subunits are tightly coupled such that oxidation of the first subunit alters the oxidation potential of the second subunit.

A wide variety of molecules can be used as storage molecules and hence comprise the storage medium. Preferred molecules include, but are not limited to a porphyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2′-bipyridyl, a 4,4′-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. Even more preferred molecules include a porphyrin, an expanded porphyrin, a contracted porphyrin, a ferrocene, a linear porphyrin polymer, and a porphyrin array. Certain particularly preferred storage molecules include a porphyrinic macrocycle substituted at a β- position or at a meso- position. Molecules well suited for use as storage molecules include the molecules described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I–XXXIV.

The storage molecule can be directly covalently linked to the electrode or covalently linked through a linker (see, e.g., FIG. 34). In another embodiment, the storage medium is juxtaposed in the proximity of said electrode such that electrons can pass from said storage medium to said electrode. The storage medium can be juxtaposed to (or embedded in) a dielectric material imbedded with counterions. In some embodiments, the storage medium and said electrode are fully encapsulated in an integrated circuit. The storage medium can be electronically coupled to a second fixed electrode that is a reference electrode. In one architecture, the storage medium is present on a single plane in said device, while in another architecture, the storage medium is present at a multiplicity of storage locations. The apparatus may comprise multiple planes and the storage locations may be present on multiple planes of the device. In preferred devices, the storage locations range from about 1024 to about 4096 different locations. Each location can be addressed by a single electrode or each location can be addressed by two (or more) electrodes. Typically at least one electrode is connected to a voltage source (e.g. the output of an integrated circuit).

Typically at least one electrode is connected to a device (e.g. a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, or a potentiometric device) to read the oxidation state of the storage medium. Preferred devices include, but are not limited to an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter. The device can optionally provides a Fourier transform of the output signal from the electrode. The device can also optionally refresh the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading the oxidation state.

Particularly preferred methods and/or devices of this invention utilize a “fixed” electrode. Thus, in one embodiment, methods and/or devices in which the electrode(s) are moveable (e.g. one or ore electrodes is a “recording head”, the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM), the tip of an atomic force microscope (AFM), or other forms in which the electrode is movable with respect to the storage medium are excluded. In certain embodiments, methods and/or devices and/or storage media, and/or storage molecules in which the storage molecule is an alkanethiolferrocene are excluded. Similarly in certain embodiments, methods and/or devices and/or storage media, in which the storage molecules are responsive to light and/or in which the oxidation state of a storage molecule is set by exposure to light are excluded.

In another embodiment, this invention provides an information storage medium. The information storage medium can be used to assemble storage cells and/or the various memory devices described herein. In a preferred embodiment the storage medium comprises one or more different storage molecules. When different species of storage molecule are present, each species of storage molecule oxidation state(s) different from and distinguishable from the oxidation state(s) of the other species of storage molecule comprising the storage medium. In preferred embodiments, the storage molecule(s) include a porphyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2′-bipyridyl, a 4,4′-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, or a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide. In even more preferred embodiment, the storage molecule(s) include a porphyrin, an expanded porphyrin, a contracted porphyrin, a ferrocene, a linear porphyrin polymer, or a porphyrin array. Preferred storage molecules contain two or more covalently linked redox-active subunits. In various preferred embodiments, the storage molecules include any of the storage molecules as described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I–XXXIV).

In still another embodiment this invention provides a collection of molecules for the production of a data storage medium. A preferred collection comprises a plurality of storage molecules wherein each species of storage molecule has an oxidation state different from and distinguishable from the oxidation states of the other species of storage molecules comprising the collection. In various preferred embodiments, the storage molecules include any of the storage molecules as described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I–XXXIV).

This invention also provides particularly preferred molecules for the storage of information (storage molecules). The molecules preferably have at least one non-neutral oxidation state and more preferably have at least two different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. In various preferred embodiments, the storage molecules include any of the storage molecules as described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I–XXXIV).

This invention also provides methods of storing data. The methods involve i) providing an apparatus, e.g., comprising one or more storage cells as described herein; and ii) applying a voltage to the electrode at sufficient current to set an oxidation state of said storage medium (the storage medium comprising one or more storage cells). In preferred embodiments, the voltage ranges is less than about 5 volts, more preferably less than about 2 volts, and most preferably less than about 1 or less than about 0.5 volts. The voltage can be the output of any convenient voltage source (e.g. output of an integrated circuit, power supply, logic gate, potentiostat, microprocessor (CPU), etc.) that can provide a voltage/signal for writing, reading, or refreshing the storage cell(s).

The method can further involve detecting the oxidation state of the storage medium and thereby reading out the data stored therein. The detection (read) can optionally involve refreshing the oxidation state of the storage medium (particularly in static-hole devices). The read (detecting) can involve analyzing a readout signal in the time or frequency domain and can thus involve performing a Fourier transform on the readout signal. The detection can be by any of a variety of methods including, but not limited to a voltammetric method. One particularly preferred readout utilizes impedance spectroscopy. The readout (detecting) can involve exposing the storage medium to an electric field to produce an electric field oscillation having characteristic frequency and detecting the characteristic frequency. In preferred embodiments, the storage cells used in the methods of this invention have storage media comprising one or more of the storage molecules described herein (e.g. the molecules of Formulas I–XIV).

This invention additionally provides the memory devices of this invention (e.g. memory cells) in a computer system. In addition computer systems utilizing the memory devices of this invention are provided. Preferred computer systems include a central processing unit, a display, a selector device, and a memory device the storage devices (e.g. storage cells) of this invention.

Definitions

The term “oxidation” refers to the loss of one or more electrons in an element, compound, or chemical substituent/subunit. In an oxidation reaction, electrons are lost by atoms of the element(s) involved in the reaction. The charge on these atoms must then become more positive. The electrons are lost from the species undergoing oxidation and so electrons appear as products in an oxidation reaction. An oxidation is taking place in the reaction Fe²⁺(aq)—>Fe³⁺(aq)+e⁻ because electrons are lost from the species being oxidized, Fe²⁺(aq), despite the apparent production of electrons as “free” entities in oxidation reactions. Conversely the term reduction refers to the gain of one or more electrons by an element, compound, or chemical substituent/subunit.

An “oxidation state” refers to the electrically neutral state or to the state produced by the gain or loss of electrons to an element, compound, or chemical substituent/subunit. In a preferred embodiment, the term “oxidation state” refers to states including the neutral state and any state other than a neutral state caused by the gain or loss of electrons (reduction or oxidation).

The term “multiple oxidation states” means more than one oxidation state. In preferred embodiments, the oxidation states may reflect the gain of electrons (reduction) or the loss of electrons (oxidation).

The terms “different and distinguishable” when referring to two or more oxidation states means that the net charge on the entity (atom, molecule, aggregate, subunit, etc.) can exist in two different states. The states are said to be “distinguishable” when the difference between the states is greater than thermal energy at room temperature (e.g. 0° C. to about 40° C.).

The term “tightly coupled” when used in reference to a subunit of a multi-subunit (e.g., polymeric) storage molecule of this invention refers to positioning of the subunits relative to each other such that oxidation of one subunit alters the oxidation potential(s) of the other subunit. In a preferred embodiment the alteration is sufficient such that the (non-neutral) oxidation state(s) of the second subunit are different and distinguishable from the non-neutral oxidation states of the first subunit. In a preferred embodiment the tight coupling is achieved by a covalent bond (e.g. single, double, triple, etc.). However, in certain embodiments, the tight coupling can be through a linker, via an ionic interaction, via a hydrophobic interaction, through coordination of a metal, or by simple mechanical juxtaposition. It is understood that the subunits could be so tightly coupled that the redox processes are those of a single supermolecule.

The term “electrode” refers to any medium capable of transporting charge (e.g. electrons) to and/or from a storage molecule. Preferred electrodes are metals or conductive organic molecules. The electrodes can be manufactured to virtually any 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional shape (e.g. discrete lines, pads, planes, spheres, cylinders, etc.).

The term “fixed electrode” is intended to reflect the fact that the electrode is essentially stable and unmovable with respect to the storage medium. That is, the electrode and storage medium are arranged in an essentially fixed geometric relationship with each other. It is of course recognized that the relationship alters somewhat due to expansion and contraction of the medium with thermal changes or due to changes in conformation of the molecules comprising the electrode and/or the storage medium. Nevertheless, the overall spatial arrangement remains essentially invariant. In a preferred embodiment this term is intended to exclude systems in which the electrode is a movable “probe” (e.g. a writing or recording “head”, an atomic force microscope (AFM) tip, a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) tip, etc.).

The term “working electrode” is used to refer to one or more electrodes that are used to set or read the state of a storage medium and/or storage molecule.

The term “reference electrode” is used to refer to one or more electrodes that provide a reference (e.g. a particular reference voltage) for measurements recorded from the working electrode. In preferred embodiments, the reference electrodes in a memory device of this invention are at the same potential although in some embodiments this need not be the case.

The term “electrically coupled” when used with reference to a storage molecule and/or storage medium and electrode refers to an association between that storage medium or molecule and the electrode such that electrons move from the storage medium/molecule to the electrode or from the electrode to the storage medium/molecule and thereby alter the oxidation state of the storage medium/molecule. Electrical coupling can include direct covalent linkage between the storage medium/molecule and the electrode, indirect covalent coupling (e.g. via a linker), direct or indirect ionic bonding between the storage medium/molecule and the electrode, or other bonding (e.g. hydrophobic bonding). In addition, no actual bonding may be required and the storage medium/molecule may simply be contacted with the electrode surface. There also need not necessarily be any contact between the electrode and the storage medium/molecule where the electrode is sufficiently close to the storage medium/molecule to permit electron tunneling between the medium/molecule and the electrode.

The term “redox-active unit” or “redox-active subunit” refers to a molecule or component of a molecule that is capable of being oxidized or reduced by the application of a suitable voltage.

The term “subunit”, as used herein, refers to a redox-active component of a molecule.

The terms “storage molecule” or “memory molecule” refer to a molecule having one or more oxidation states that can be used for the storage of information (e.g. a molecule comprising one or more redox-active subunits). Preferred storage molecules have two or more different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states.

The term “storage medium” refers to a composition comprising two or more storage molecules. The storage medium can contain only one species of storage molecule or it can contain two or more different species of storage molecule. In preferred embodiments, the term “storage medium” refers to a collection of storage molecules. Preferred storage media comprise a multiplicity (at least 2) of different and distinguishable (preferably non-neutral) oxidation states. The multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states can be produced by the combination of different species of storage molecules, each species contributing to said multiplicity of different oxidation states and each species having a single non-neutral oxidation state. Alternatively or in addition, the storage medium can comprise one or more species of storage molecule having a multiplicity of non-neutral oxidation states. The storage medium can contain predominantly one species of storage molecule or it can contain a number of different storage molecules. The storage media can also include molecules other than storage molecules (e.g. to provide chemical stability, suitable mechanical properties, to prevent charge leakage, etc.).

The term “electrochemical cell” consists minimally of a reference electrode, a working electrode, a redox-active medium (e.g. a storage medium), and, if necessary, some means (e.g., a dielectric) for providing electrical conductivity between the electrodes and/or between the electrodes and the medium. In some embodiments, the dielectric is a component of the storage medium.

The terms “memory element”, “memory cell”, or “storage cell” refer to an electrochemical cell that can be used for the storage of information. Preferred “storage cells” are discrete regions of storage medium addressed by at least one and preferably by two electrodes (e.g. a working electrode and a reference electrode). The storage cells can be individually addressed (e.g. a unique electrode is associated with each memory element) or, particularly where the oxidation states of different memory elements are distinguishable, multiple memory elements can be addressed by a single electrode. The memory element can optionally include a dielectric (e.g. a dielectric impregnated with counterions).

The term “storage location” refers to a discrete domain or area in which a storage medium is disposed. When addressed with one or more electrodes, the storage location may form a storage cell. However if two storage locations contain the same storage media so that they have essentially the same oxidation states, and both storage locations are commonly addressed, they may form one functional storage cell.

“Addressing” a particular element refers to associating (e.g., electrically coupling) that memory element with an electrode such that the electrode can be used to specifically determine the oxidation state(s) of that memory element.

The term “storage density” refers to the number of bits per volume and/or bits per molecule that can be stored. When the storage medium is said to have a storage density greater than one bit per molecule, this refers to the fact that a storage medium preferably comprises molecules wherein a single molecule is capable of storing at least one bit of information.

The terms “read” or “interrogate” refer to the determination of the oxidation state(s) of one or more molecules (e.g. molecules comprising a storage medium).

The term “refresh” when used in reference to a storage molecule or to a storage medium refers to the application of a voltage to the storage molecule or storage medium to re-set the oxidation state of that storage molecule or storage medium to a predetermined state (e.g. an oxidation state the storage molecule or storage medium was in immediately prior to a read).

The term “E_(1/2)” refers to the practical definition of the formal potential (E°) of a redox process as defined by E=E°+(RT/nF)ln(D_(ox)/D_(red)) where R is the gas constant, T is temperature in K (Kelvin), n is the number of electrons involved in the process, F is the Faraday constant (96,485 Coulomb/mole), D_(ox) is the diffusion coefficient of the oxidized species and D_(red) is the diffusion coefficient of the reduced species.

A “voltage source” is any source (e.g. molecule, device, circuit, etc.) capable of applying a voltage to a target (e.g. an electrode).

The term “present on a single plane”, when used in reference to a memory device of this invention refers to the fact that the component(s) (e.g. storage medium, electrode(s), etc.) in question are present on the same physical plane in the device (e.g. are present on a single lamina). Components that are on the same plane can typically be fabricated at the same time, e.g., in a single operation. Thus, for example, all of the electrodes on a single plane can typically be applied in a single (e.g., sputtering) step (assuming they are all of the same material).

The phrase “output of an integrated circuit” refers to a voltage or signal produced by a one or more integrated circuit(s) and/or one or more components of an integrated circuit.

A “voltammetric device” is a device capable of measuring the current produced in an electrochemical cell as a result of the application of a voltage or change in voltage.

An “amperometric device” is a device capable of measuring the current produced in an electrochemical cell as a result of the application of a specific potential field potential (“voltage”).

A “potentiometric device” is a device capable of measuring potential across an interface that results from a difference in the equilibrium concentrations of redox molecules in an electrochemical cell.

A “coulometric device” is a device capable of the net charge produced during the application of a potential field (“voltage”) to an electrochemical cell.

An “impedance spectrometer” is a device capable of determining the overall impedance of an electrochemical cell.

A “sinusoidal voltammeter” is a voltammetric device capable of determining the frequency domain properties of an electrochemical cell.

The term “porphyrinic macrocycle” refers to a porphyrin or porphyrin derivative. Such derivatives include porphyrins with extra rings ortho-fused, or ortho-perifused, to the porphyrin nucleus, porphyrins having a replacement of one or more carbon atoms of the porphyrin ring by an atom of another element (skeletal replacement), derivatives having a replacement of a nitrogen atom of the porphyrin ring by an atom of another element (skeletal replacement of nitrogen), derivatives having substituents other than hydrogen located at the peripheral (meso-, β-) or core atoms of the porphyrin, derivatives with saturation of one or more bonds of the porphyrin (hydroporphyrins, e.g., chlorins, bacteriochlorins, isobacteriochlorins, decahydroporphyrins, corphins, pyrrocorphins, etc.), derivatives obtained by coordination of one or more metals to one or more porphyrin atoms (metalloporphyrins), derivatives having one or more atoms, including pyrrolic and pyrromethenyl units, inserted in the porphyrin ring (expanded porphyrins), derivatives having one or more groups removed from the porphyrin ring (contracted porphyrins, e.g., corrin, corrole) and combinations of the foregoing derivatives (e.g. phthalocyanines, sub-phthalocyanines, and porphyrin isomers). Preferred porphyrinic macrocycles comprise at least one 5-membered ring.

The term “porphyrin” refers to a cyclic structure typically composed of four pyrrole rings together with four nitrogen atoms and two replaceable hydrogens for which various metal atoms can readily be substituted. A typical porphyrin is hemin.

The term “multiporphyrin array” refers to a discrete number of two or more covalently-linked porphyrinic macrocycles. The multiporphyrin arrays can be linear, cyclic, or branched.

A “linker” is a molecule used to couple two different molecules, two subunits of a molecule, or a molecule to a substrate.

A “substrate” is a, preferably solid, material suitable for the attachment of one or more molecules. Substrates can be formed of materials including, but not limited to glass, plastic, silicon, minerals (e.g. quartz), semiconducting materials, ceramics, metals, etc.

The term “odd hole oxidation state”, refers to the case where the number of electron equivalents added or removed from a molecule or molecules is not an integer multiple of the number of redox-active (e.g. oxidizable or reducable) subunits in the molecule or molecules.

The phrase “hole hopping” refers to the exchange of oxidation states between subunits of thermodynamically similar potentials.

The term “aryl” refers to a compound whose molecules have the ring structure characteristic of benzene, naphthalene, phenanthrene, anthracene, etc. (i.e., either the 6-carbon ring of benzene or the condensed 6-carbon rings of the other aromatic derivatives). For example, and aryl group may be phenyl (C₆H₃) or naphthyl (C₁₀H₉). It is recognized that the aryl, while acting as substituent can itself have additional substituents (e.g. the substituents provided for S^(n) in the various Formulas herein).

The term “alkyl” refers to a paraffinic hydrocarbon group which may be derived from an alkane by dropping one hydrogen from the formula. Examples are methyl (CH₃—), ethyl (C₂H₅—), propyl (CH₃CH₂CH₂—), isopropyl ((CH₃)₂CH₃—).

The term “halogen” refers to one or the electronegative elements of group VIIA of the periodic table (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine).

The term “nitro” refers to the NO₂ group.

The term “amino” refers to the NH₂ group.

The term “perfluoroalkyl” refers to an alkyl group where every hydrogen atom is replaced with a fluorine atom.

The term “perfluoroaryl” refers to an aryl group where every hydrogen atom is replaced with a fluorine atom.

The term “pyridyl” refers to an aryl group where one CH unit is replaced with a nitrogen atom.

The term “cyano” refers to the —CN group.

The term “thiocyanato” refers to the —SCN group.

The term “sulfoxyl” refers to a group of composition RS(O)— where R is some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to methylsulfoxyl, phenylsulfoxyl, etc.

The term “sulfonyl” refers to a group of composition RSO₂— where R is some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to methylsulfonyl, phenylsulfonyl, p-toluenesulfonyl, etc.

The term “carbamoyl” refers to the group of composition R¹(R²)NC(O)— where R¹ and R² are H or some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to N-ethylcarbamoyl, N,N-dimethylcarbamoyl, etc.

The term “amido” refers to the group of composition R¹CON(R²)— where R¹ and R² are H or some alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, perfluoroalkyl, or perfluoroaryl group. Examples include, but are not limited to acetamido, N-ethylbenzamido, etc.

The term “acyl” refers to an organic acid group in which the OH of the carboxyl group is replaced by some other substituent (RCO—). Examples include, but are not limited to acetyl, benzoyl, etc.

In preferred embodiments, when a metal is designated by “M” or “M^(n)”, where n is an integer, it is recognized that the metal may be associated with a counterion.

The term “substituent” as used in the formulas herein, particularly designated by S or S^(n) where n is an integer, in a preferred embodiment refer to redox-active groups (subunits) that can be used to adjust the redox potential(s) of the subject compound. Preferred substituents include, but are not limited to, aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, amido, and carbamoyl. In preferred embodiments, a substituted aryl group is attached to a porphyrin or a porphyrinic macrocycle, and the substituents on the aryl group are selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, amido, and carbamoyl.

Particularly preferred substituents include, but are not limited to, 4-chlorophenyl, 3-acetamidophenyl, 2,4-dichloro-4-trifluoromethyl). Preferred substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt.

The phrase “provide a redox potential range of less than about X volts” refers to the fact that when a substituent providing such a redox potential range is incorporated into a compound, the compound into which it is incorporated has an oxidation potential less than or equal to X volts, where X is a numeric value.

The abbreviations “SHSU”, “SHMU” and “DHMU”, refer to “static-hole single unit”, “static-hole multi-unit” and “dynamic hole multi-unit”, respectively.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 illustrates a basic molecular memory unit “storage cell” of this invention. The basic memory device, a “storage cell” 100 comprises a working electrode 101 electrically coupled to a storage medium 102 comprising a multiplicity of storage molecules 105. The storage cell optionally includes an electrolyte 107 and a reference electrode 103. The storage medium has a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states, and can change oxidation (charge) state when a voltage or signal is applied thereby adding or removing one or more electrons.

FIG. 2 illustrates the disposition of the storage cell(s) of this invention on a chip.

FIG. 3 illustrates a preferred chip-based embodiment of this invention. A two-level chip is illustrated showing working electrodes 101, orthogonal reference electrodes 103, and storage elements 104.

FIG. 4. The three-dimensional architecture of a single memory storage cell (memory element) on the chip.

FIG. 5 illustrates the encoding of a prototypical DHMU storage molecule using hole-hopping states (the double-headed arrows indicate hole hopping).

FIG. 6 illustrates porphyrin mono-thiols for attachment to a metal (e.g., gold) electrode.

FIG. 7 illustrates the modular synthesis of a SHMU storage molecule.

FIG. 8 illustrates a representative synthesis of a DHMU storage molecule. Three porphyrin building blocks are prepared and metalated with magnesium or zinc. The synthetic strategy builds the two arms of the DHMU storage molecule separately, which are then coupled in the penultimate step of the synthesis. Each arm is constructed via two Pd-mediated couplings, yielding the respective trimers. One trimer is iodinated at the ethyne, then joined with the other trimer in a heterocoupling process to form the H-like structure.

FIG. 9 illustrates writing to a molecular memory of this invention. In preferred embodiments, this is accomplished through the application of very short (e.g., microsecond) pulses applied at a voltage sufficient to oxidize a storage medium (e.g. a porphyrin) to the appropriate redox state as summarized in this figure. Thus, each redox state of the composite multiunit nanostructure (e.g. porphyrinic array) can be independently accessed to provide one bit of resolution. This can be accomplished via the electrochemical oxidation of the molecule in stepwise increments.

FIG. 10 illustrates a frequency domain spectrum of the faradaic SV response. Note that the numerous harmonic frequency components depend on many of the same voltammetric parameters (e.g., E°, E_(switch), scan rate, number of electrons, etc.) that govern the response observed in cyclic voltammetry, and can be easily isolated in the frequency domain.

FIG. 11 illustrates a sinusoidal voltammetry system suitable for readout of the memory devices of this invention.

FIG. 12 illustrates a computer system embodying the memory devices described herein. Typically the memory device will be fabricated as a sealed “chip”. Ancillary circuitry on the chip and/or in the computer permits writing bits into the memory and retrieving the written information as desired.

FIG. 13 illustrates the memory devices of this invention integrated into a standard computer architecture or computer system 200.

FIG. 14 illustrates synthesis scheme 1 for the synthesis of latent benzaldehydes with various protecting groups for the p-thiol moiety. These are used in the synthesis of thiol-substituted porphyrins.

FIG. 15 illustrates synthesis scheme 2 for the synthesis of benzaldehydes with protected thiol groups. These are used in the synthesis of thiol-derivatized porphyrins.

FIG. 16 illustrates synthesis scheme 3 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc porphyrins each bearing three mesityl groups and one protected p-thiophenyl group.

FIG. 17 illustrates synthesis scheme 4 for the synthesis of a zinc porphyrin bearing three mesityl groups and one free thiol group.

FIG. 18 illustrates synthesis scheme 5 for the synthesis of a magnesium porphyrin bearing three mesityl groups and one p-mercaptophenyl group.

FIG. 19 illustrates synthesis scheme 6 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc porphyrins each bearing three groups to tune the oxidation potential and one free or protected p-thiophenyl group.

FIG. 20 illustrates synthesis scheme 7 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc porphyrins bearing four m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl groups for horizontal orientation on a gold surface.

FIG. 21 illustrates synthesis scheme 8 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc porphyrins bearing two m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl groups for horizontal orientation on a gold surface.

FIG. 22 illustrates synthesis scheme 9 for the synthesis of metallo-free and zinc porphyrins bearing four m-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl groups for horizontal orientation on a gold surface.

FIG. 23 illustrates the writing of bits on a porphyrin monolayer having two non-neutral oxidation states. A plot of current versus time at 3 applied voltages is illustrated. At 0–300 mV, no bit is set and the plot provides a background signal. At 500–800 mV and at 800–1100 mV the first and second bits are written, respectively.

FIG. 24 illustrates the read/write of a monomeric porphyrin. Current is plotted as a function of potential.

FIG. 25 illustrates background-subtracted faradaic read current.

FIG. 26 shows synthesis scheme 1 for the synthesis of Zn-2 from 5-phenyldipyrromethane.

FIG. 27 shows synthesis scheme 2 for the synthesis of Zn-3 and Zn-4 from Zn-2.

FIG. 28 shows synthesis scheme 3 for the synthesis of Zn-8.

FIG. 29 shows equation 1 illustrating a first attempt to synthesize a dipyrromethane by reacting commercially available 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde with pyrrole to give the corresponding dipyrromethane (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634–8647). However, subsequent treatment with sodium tert-butoxide (Pinchart et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 5479–5482), followed by quenching of the anion with acetyl chloride did not afford the desired product.

FIG. 30 shows Equation 2 illustrating the reaction of 4-S-acetylthiobenzaldehyde (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634–8647) with pyrrole to yield dipyrromethane 6.

FIG. 31 shows synthesis scheme 4 for the synthesis of Zn-9.

FIG. 32 shows synthesis scheme 5 for the synthesis of Zn-10.

FIG. 33 shows synthesis scheme 6 for the synthesis of Zn-13.

FIG. 34 illustrates a variety of linkers and their couling to a porphyrinic macrocycle.

FIG. 35 illustrates a synthesis of the aldehyde 4-(S-acetylthio)-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzaldehyde (9).

FIG. 36 illustrates substitution bromide with potassium thioacetate to give S-acetyl protected thiobenzaldehyde 10.

FIG. 37 illustrates a synthesis of aldehyde 11.

FIG. 38 illustrates a treatment of crude aldehyde 16 with potassium thioacetate to yield aldehyde 17.

FIG. 39 illustrates a Pd-coupling of commercially available propiolaldehyde diethylacetal with 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene (1).

FIG. 40 illustrates scheme 1 for the synthesis of compound 3 using 1-iodo4-(S-acetylthio)benzene 1.

FIG. 41 illustrates scheme 2 for the synthesis of aldehyde 8.

FIG. 42 illustrates scheme 3 for the synthesis of aldehyde 15 starting from 4-bromobenzaldehyde.

FIG. 43 illustrates scheme 4 for the conversion of aldehydes 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 and 17 to the thiol-protected A₃B-porphyrins 19–25.

FIG. 44 illustrates scheme 5 for the conversion of acetal 18 to the desired A₃B porphyrin.

FIG. 45 shows equation 1 illustrating the synthesis of diphenylethyne-linked ferrocene carboxaldehyde 30 via Pd-coupling of ethynylphenylferrocene 4 with 4-iodobenzaldehyde.

FIG. 46 shows equation 2 illustrating the treatment of 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17 with excess pyrrole at room temperature to produce 36.

FIG. 47 illustrates the reaction of ferrocenyldipyrromethane 36, 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde 31 and 4-methylbenzaldehyde to provide provided the expected porphyrins.

FIG. 48 illustrates scheme 1 for the synthesis of 4-iodophenylferrocene (1) in 30% yield.

FIG. 49 illustrates scheme 2 for the synthesis of 4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}phenylferrocene (5).

FIG. 50 illustrates scheme 3 for the synthesis of 11.

FIG. 51 shows scheme 4 for the synthesis of 12 using the Clemmensen system (Zn/HgCl₂ amalgam and HCl).

FIG. 52 illustrates scheme 5 for the arylation of ferrocene using 4-aminobenzyl alcohol to produce 4-ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol (16) and 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17) which are then separated chromatographically.

FIG. 53 illustrates scheme 6 for the synthesis of 4-(bromomethyl)phenylferrocene (19).

FIG. 54 illustrates scheme 7 for the synthesis of a set of S-acetylthio-derivatized alkylferrocenes with different length alkyl chains.

FIG. 55 illustrates scheme 8 for the condensation of 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17), 4-[S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thio]-benzaldehyde 32 and 5-mesityldipyrromethane in the presence of BF₃-etherate and NH₄Cl in acetonitrile followed by oxidation with DDQ to yield a crude porphyrin mixture containing porphyrin 34.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This invention provides novel high density memory devices that are electrically addressable permitting effective reading and writing, that provide a high memory density (e.g., 10¹⁵ bits/cm³), that provide a high degree of fault tolerance, and that are amenable to efficient chemical synthesis and chip fabrication. The devices are intrinsically latchable, defect tolerant, and support destructive or non-destructive read cycles.

In a preferred embodiment, this invention provides an apparatus for storing data (e.g., a “storage cell”). The storage cell includes a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a “storage medium” having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states where data is stored in the (preferably non-neutral) oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode.

One embodiment of this invention is illustrated in FIG. 1. The basic memory device, a “storage cell” 100 comprises a working electrode 101 electrically coupled to a storage medium 102 comprising a multiplicity of storage molecules 105. The storage cell optionally includes an electrolyte 107 and a reference electrode 103. The storage medium has a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states, and can change oxidation (charge) state when a voltage or signal is applied thereby adding or removing one or more electrons. Each oxidation state represents a particular bit. Where the storage medium supports eight different and distinguishable oxidation states it stores one byte.

The storage medium remains in the set oxidation state until another voltage is applied to alter that oxidation state. The oxidation state of the storage medium can be readily determined using a wide variety of electronic (e.g. amperometric, coulometric, voltammetric) methods thereby providing rapid readout.

The storage medium comprises molecules having a single oxidation state and/or molecules having multiple different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the storage medium can comprise eight different species of storage molecules each having one non-neutral oxidation state and thereby store one byte. In another embodiment, the storage medium can comprise one species of molecule that has eight different and distinguishable oxidation states and store one byte in that manner as well. As explained herein, a large number of different molecules having different numbers of oxidation states can be used for the storage medium.

In certain preferred embodiments, the storage medium preferably utilizes molecules employing weakly coupled arrays of porphyrins and/or porphyrinic macrocycles. The electrochemical potential in such molecules is preferably tuned through the use of various substituents and central metals, but the molecules retain their distinctive oxidation potentials when they are incorporated into arrays. Accordingly this approach typically involved the synthesis of a family of differently substituted porphyrins (or other molecules) for incorporation into a molecular array.

In other preferred embodiments, in order to simplify construction of molecular for information storage, this invention contemplates the use of polymeric molecules having multiple oxidation states where the monomeric subunits comprising the polymers are tightly coupled (e.g. directly linked as opposed to linking through a linker). The “tight coupling” is manifested as a splitting in redox potentials of the structurally identical subunits. Thus, for example, combination of two identical subunits each having two identical non-zero oxidation states can result in dimer having four different and distinguishable non-zero oxidation states. This greatly simplifies fabrication of a storage molecule as, in this instance, only a single type of subunit need be synthesized.

In any of the embodiments described herein, because molecular dimensions are so small (on the order of angstroms) and individual molecules in the devices of this invention can store multiple bits, the storage devices of this invention therefore offer remarkably high storage densities (e.g. >10¹⁵ bits/cm³).

Moreover, the devices of this invention are capable of a degree of self-assembly and hence easily fabricated. Because the devices are electrically (rather than optically) addressed, and because the devices utilize relatively simple and highly stable storage elements, they are readily fabricated utilizing existing technologies and easily incorporated into electronic devices. Thus, the molecular memory devices of this invention have a number of highly desirable features:

Because the storage medium of the devices described herein is electrically-addressed, the devices are amenable to the construction of a multilayered chip architecture. An architecture compatible with such a three-dimensional structure is essential to achieve the objective of 10¹⁵ bits/cm³. In addition, because writing and reading is accomplished electrically, many of the fundamental problems inherent with photonics are avoided. Moreover, electrical reading and writing is compatible with existing computer technology for memory storage.

In addition, the devices of this invention achieve a high level of defect tolerance. Defect tolerance is accomplished through the use of clusters of molecules (up to several million in a memory cell). Thus, the failure of one or a few molecules will not alter the ability to read or write to a given memory cell that constitutes a particular bit of memory. In preferred embodiments, the basis for memory storage relies on the oxidation state(s) of porphyrins or other porphyrinic macrocycles of defined energy levels. Porphyrins and porphyrinic macrocycles are well known to form stable radical cations. Indeed, the oxidation and reduction of porphyrins provide the foundation for the biological processes of photosynthesis and respiration. Porphyrin radical cations can be formed chemically on the benchtop exposed to air. We know of no other class of molecules with such robust electroactive properties.

Preferred storage molecules of this invention molecule (e.g. SHMU or DHMU) can hold multiple holes, corresponding to multiple bits. In contrast, the dyes (photochromic, electrochromic, redox) and molecular machines are invariably bistable elements. Bistable elements exist either in a high/low state and hence can only store a single bit. The SHMU and DHMU are unique molecular nanostructures providing resilient storage of multiple bits.

Reading can be accomplished non-destructively or destructively as required in different chip applications. The speed of reading is conservatively estimated to lie in the MHz to GHz regime. Memory storage is inherently latchable due to the stability of the porphyrin or other porphyrinic macrocycle radical cations. Oxidation of the porphyrins or other porphyrinic macrocycles can be achieved at relatively low potential (and at predesignated potentials through synthetic design), enabling memory storage to be achieved at very low power. Porphyrins and porphyrin radical cations are stable across a broad range of temperatures, enabling chip applications at low temperature, room temperature, or at elevated temperatures.

Fabrication of the devices of this invention relies on known technology. The synthesis of the storage media takes advantage of established building block approaches in porphyrin and other porphyrinic macrocycle chemistry. Synthetic routes have been developed to make the porphyrin and porphyrinic macrocycle building blocks, to join them in covalent nanostructures, and to purify them to a high level (>99%).

In preferred embodiments, the storage medium nanostructures are designed for directed self-assembly on gold surfaces. Such self-assembly processes are robust, result in the culling out of defective molecules, and yield long-range order in the surface-assembled cluster.

Porphyrin-thiols have been assembled on electroactive surfaces. The arrays that define the addressable bits of memory can be achieved through conventional microfabrication techniques. The storage molecules are self-assembled onto these electrode arrays and attached to the gold surface using conventional dipping methods.

I. Uses of the storage device.

One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the memory devices of this invention have wide applicability in specialized and general-purpose computer systems. Of course commercial realization of the device(s) will be facilitated by the adoption of computer architecture standards compatible with this technology. In addition, commercial adoption of this technology will be facilitated by the use of other molecular electronic components that will serve as on-chip buffers and decoders (that is, molecular logic gates), and the like. In addition, commercialization will be facilitated by the development of a full manufacturing infrastructure.

Regardless, prior to the development of a fully integrated design and manufacturing platform for molecular electronic information storage and transfer, even early generation prototype molecular memory devices described herein have utility in highly specialized military and/or stealthy applications. For example, a prototype 1024/512-bit molecular memory device has sufficient capacity to hold a substantial base of personal and/or other proprietary information. This information could be transported anywhere in the world virtually undetected owing to the extremely small size of the device. If detected, the memory device is easily erased simply by applying a low potential reverse bias current across all memory cells. This protection mechanism can be readily incorporated into any type of transport architecture designed for the memory device.

The memory devices of this invention have sufficient capacity to hold personal information (e.g. medical, personal identification, financial information on a “smart card”). Even a memory device that degrades upon multiple read cycles is extremely useful if the number of read cycles is highly limited (perhaps only one). A memory device that degrades upon multiple read cycles or simply with time is also useful in applications where long-term data persistence is not needed or is strategically unwise. Thus, numerous strategically important applications for early generation memory devices present themselves. Successes of the memory devices in these applications will foster even more rapid full-scale commercialization of the technology.

II. Architecture of the Storage Device.

The basic storage cell (electrode(s) and storage medium) of this invention can be incorporated into a functional device in a wide variety of configurations. One preferred embodiment of this invention is illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2. The basic memory device, a “istorage cell” 100 comprises one or more working electrodes 101 electrically coupled to a storage medium 102 comprising a multiplicity of storage molecules 105. The storage cell optionally includes an electrolyte 107 and one or more reference electrode(s) 103. The storage medium has a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states, and can change oxidation (charge) state when a voltage or signal is applied thereby adding or removing one or more electrons. Each oxidation state represents a particular bit, however, in certain embodiments, where the oxidation states are not fully independently addressable, it may take as many as eight oxidation states to independently write three bits.

The storage medium generally remains in the set oxidation state until another voltage is applied to alter that oxidation state. The oxidation state of the storage medium can be readily determined using a wide variety of electronic (e.g. amperometric, coulometric, voltammetric) methods thereby providing rapid readout.

The storage medium comprises molecules having a single oxidation state and/or molecules having multiple different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the storage medium can comprise eight different species of storage molecules each having one non-neutral oxidation state and thereby store one byte. In another embodiment, the storage medium can comprise one species of molecule that has eight different and distinguishable oxidation states and store one byte in that manner as well. As explained herein, a large number of different molecules having different numbers of oxidation states can be used for the storage medium.

Because molecular dimensions are so small (on the order of angstroms) and individual molecules in the devices of this invention can store multiple bits, the storage devices of this invention therefore offer remarkably high storage densities (e.g. >10¹⁵ bits/cm³).

One chip-based embodiment of this invention is illustrated in FIG. 2. As illustrated in FIG. 2 the storage medium 102 is disposed in a number of storage locations 104. Each storage location is addressed by a working electrode 101 and a reference electrode 103 so that the storage medium 102 combined with the electrodes forms a storage cell 100 at each storage location.

One particularly preferred chip-based embodiment is illustrated in FIG. 3. In the illustrated embodiment, a plurality of working electrodes 101 and reference electrodes 103 are illustrated each addressing storage media 102 localized at discrete storage locations thereby forming a plurality of storage cells 100. Multiple storage cells can be associated with a single addressing electrode as long as oxidation states of the storage cells are distinguishable from each other. It should be noted that this forms a functional definition of a storage cell. Where two discrete areas of storage medium are addressed by the same electrode(s) if the storage media comprise the same species of storage molecule the two discrete areas will functionally perform as a single storage cell, i.e. the oxidation states of both locations will be commonly set, and/or read, and/or reset. The added storage location, however, will increase the fault tolerance of the storage cell as the functional storage cell will contain more storage molecules. In another embodiment, each individual storage cell is associated with a single addressing electrode.

In preferred embodiments, the storage medium comprising the storage cells of a memory device are all electrically coupled to one or more reference electrodes. The reference electrode(s) can be provided as discrete electrodes or as a common backplane.

The chip illustrated in FIG. 3 has two levels of working electrodes and hence two levels of storage cells 100 (with numerous storage cells on each level). Of course, the chip can be fabricated with a single level of electrodes and memory element or literally hundreds or thousands of different levels of storage cell(s), the thickness of the chip being limited essentially by practical packaging and reliability constraints.

In certain preferred embodiments the storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric medium to insure electrical connectivity to a reference voltage (e.g. a reference electrode, a reference backplane, etc.). In particularly preferred embodiments, a layer of dielectric material imbedded with counterions to ensure electrical connectivity to the reference electrode and stability of the cationic species in the absence of applied potential (latching), is disposed between the reference working electrode(s).

Dielectric materials suitable for the devices of this invention are well known to those of skill in the art. Such materials include, but are not limited to Nafion™, cellulose acetate, polystyrene sulfonate, poly(vinylpyridine), electronically conducting polymers such as polypyrrole and polyaniline, etc.

While, in some preferred embodiments, feature sizes are rather large (e.g. memory elements approximately (10×10×10 μm) and electrode thickness ˜200 nm, feature size can be reduced at will so that feature sizes are comparable to those in conventional silicon-based devices (e.g., 50 nm –100 nm on each axis).

In one particularly preferred embodiment, the storage device includes: (1) A metal (e.g. gold) working electrode (e.g., 200 nm thick), deposited on a nonconducting base, and line-etched to achieve electrode widths of 10's to 100's of nm. (2) A monolayer of self-assembled porphyrinic nanostructures (storage molecules 105) attached to the gold surface via the sulfur atom of the thiophenol group. (3) A 100-nm thick layer of dielectric material 107 embedded with counterions to ensure electrical connectivity to the reference electrode and stability of the cationic species in the absence of applied potential (latching). (4) A 200-nm thick nonpolarizable reference electrode 103 line etched in the same fashion as those of the working electrode 101, but assembled with lines orthogonal to the latter electrode. (5) A mirror image construct that utilizes the same reference electrode. Thus, in one embodiment, the three-dimensional architecture of a single memory storage location (memory element) on the chip will look as indicated in FIG. 4.

While the discussion herein of electrodes is with respect to gold electrodes, it will be recognized that numerous other materials will be suitable. Thus, electrode materials include, but are not limited to gold, silver, copper, other metals, metal alloys, organic conductors (e.g. doped polyacetylene, doped polythiophene, etc.), nanostructures, crystals, etc.

Similarly, the substrates used in the fabrication of devices of this invention include, but are not limited to glasses, silicon, minerals (e.g. quartz), plastics, ceramics, membranes, gels, aerogels, and the like.

III. Fabrication and Characterization of the Storage Device.

A) Fabrication.

The memory devices of this invention can be fabricated using standard methods well known to those of skill in the art. In a preferred embodiment, the electrode layer(s) are applied to a suitable substrate (e.g. silica, glass, plastic, ceramic, etc.) according to standard well known methods (see, e.g., Choudhury (1997) The Handbook of Microlithography, Micromachining, and Microfabrication, Soc. Photo-Optical Instru. Engineer, Bard & Faulkner (1997) Fundamentals of Microfabrication). In addition, examples of the use of micromachining techniques on silicon or borosilicate glass chips can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,194,133, 5,132,012, 4,908,112, and 4,891,120.

In one preferred embodiment a metal layer is beam sputtered onto the substrate (e.g. a 10 nm thick chromium adhesion layer is sputtered down followed by a 200 run thick layer of gold). Then maskless laser ablation lithography (see below), performed e.g., with a Nd:YAG laser, is used to create features with micron dimensions, or with an excimer laser to create features of nanometer dimensions) will create an array of parallel lines of conductor (e.g., gold), used as the working electrodes with dimensions ranging between a few microns to a tens of nanometers;

Once the electrode array is formed, the entire array, or portions of the array, or individual electrodes are wetted (e.g. immersed or spotted) with one or more solutions of the appropriate derivatized storage media (e.g. thiol-substituted porphyrin nanostructures), and the constituents of the memory medium (e.g., monomeric porphyrin subunits) self-assemble on the micro-sized gold arrays to form the memory elements. It will be appreciated that different solutions can be applied to different regions of the electrode array to produce storage cells comprising different storage medium. Methods of spotting different reagents on surfaces (e.g. on glass surfaces) at densities up to tens of thousands of different species/spots per cm² are known (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,807,522).

Then a suitable electrolyte layer (e.g. a thin layer of Nafion polymer) approximately 1 nm to 1000 nm, preferably about 100 nm to about 500 nm, more preferably about 10 nm to about 100 nm and most preferably about one hundred nanometers thick) will be cast over the entire surface of the chip. This polymer serves to hold the electrolyte for electrochemical reaction. Finally, the entire chip is coated with a layer (e.g., 10 nm to about 1000 nm, more preferably 100 nm to about 300 nm and most preferably about 200 nm of conducting material (e.g. silver) which acts as a reference electrode 103.

The chip is then turned 90 degrees, and maskless laser ablation lithography will be performed again to create a second array of parallel lines that are perpendicular to the original set. This forms a three dimensional array of individual memory elements, where each element is formed by the intersection of these two perpendicular linear arrays (see FIG. 4).

Each individual element can be addressed by selecting the appropriate X and Y logic elements, corresponding to one gold working electrode and one reference electrode separated by the Nafion polymer/electrolyte layer. Since this structure is inherently three dimensional, it should be possible to extend the array into the Z-direction, creating a 3-D array of memory elements as large as it is feasible to connect to.

These structures are initially created on the micron scale. It is possible to decrease the size of these structures to sub-micron dimensions. It is possible to create these structures on a scale similar to silicon microstructures created with conventional nanolithographic techniques (i.e. 100–200 nm). This would allow the interfacing of the memory elements with conventional silicon-based semiconductor electronics.

In the laser-ablation lithography discussed above, coherent light is sent through a beam splitter (50% transmittance) and reflected by a mirror to make two nearly parallel identical beams (Rosenwald et al. (1998) Anal. Chem., 70:1133–1140). These beams are sent through e.g., a 50 cm focal length lens for ease in focusing to a common point. The placement of the beams is fine-tuned to allow complete overlap of the mode structure of the laser spot. Higher order interference patterns are minimized through the use of high quality optics ( 1/10 wave surface flatness). This ensures that the variation between intensity maxima and minima in the first order will be several orders of magnitude larger than those formed with second and higher orders. This produces a well-defined pattern of lines across the electrode surface, where the spacing between points of positive interference (D) can be approximated by the Bragg Equation: nλ=2Dsin(θ/2), where λ=wavelength, θ=angle between the beams, and n is order. For example, when a Nd:YAG is used at 1064 nm, the recombination of the two beams in this manner generates an interference pattern with ˜2 micron spacing when the angle between the 2 beams is 15°. The interference pattern spacing can easily be changed by modifying the angle between the beams. Attenuation of the beam was accomplished by inserting one or more neutral density filters before the beam splitter. In this way, the exposure of the gold layer to the Nd-YAG interference pattern can be performed at different beam attenuations to produce power densities between 1 and 100 MW/cm².

B) Electrically Coupling Storage Medium to Electrode.

In the storage devices of this invention, the storage medium is electrically coupled to one or more electrodes. The term “electrical coupling” is used to refer to coupling schemes that permit the storage medium to gain or lose electrons to the electrode. The coupling can be a direct attachment of the storage medium to the electrode, or an indirect attachment (e.g. via a linker). The attachment can be a covalent linkage, an ionic linkage, a linkage driven by hydrogen bonding or can involve no actual chemical attachment, but simply a juxtaposition of the electrode to the storage medium. In some embodiments, the electrode can be some distance (e.g, about 5 Å to about 50 Å) from the storage medium and electrical coupling can be via electron tunneling.

In some preferred embodiments, a “linker” is used to attach the molecule(s) of the storage medium to the electrode. The linker can be electrically conductive or it can be sufficient position the molecule(s) of the storage medium such that electrons can pass directly or indirectly between the electrode and a molecule of the storage medium.

The manner of linking a wide variety of compounds to various surfaces is well known and is amply illustrated in the literature. Means of coupling the molecules comprising the storage medium will be recognized by those of skill in the art. The linkage of the storage medium to a surface can be covalent, or by ionic or other non-covalent interactions. The surface and/or the molecule(s) may be specifically derivatized to provide convenient linking groups (e.g. sulfur, hydroxyl, amino, etc.).

The linker can be provided as a component of the storage medium molecule(s) or separately. Linkers, when not joined to the molecules to be linked are often either hetero- or homo-bifunctional molecules that contain two or more reactive sites that may each form a covalent bond with the respective binding partner (i.e. surface or storage medium molecule). When provided as a component of a storage molecule, or attached to a substrate surface, the linkers are preferably spacers having one or more reactive sites suitable for bonding to the respective surface or molecule.

Linkers suitable for joining molecules are well known to those of skill in the art and include, but are not limited to any of a variety of, a straight or branched chain carbon linker, or a heterocyclic carbon linker, amino acid or peptide linkers, and the like. Particularly preferred linkers include, but are not limited to 4,4′-diphenylethyne, 4,4′-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4′-biphenyl, 1,4-phenylene, 4,4′-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4′-azobenzene, 4,4′-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4″-terphenyl. Linkers include molecules that join one or more molecules of the storage medium to the electrode(s).

A variety of suitable linkers are illustrated in FIG. 34, although in certain embodiments, this invention excludes linker A in FIG. 34. The synthesis of these linkers is described in detail in Example 4. Using the teaching provided herein, a wide variety of other suitable linkers can routinely be produced by one of ordinary skill in the art.

C) Addressing the Memory Cells.

Addressing of the storage cell(s) in the devices of this invention is relatively straightforward. In a simple approach a discrete pair of electrodes (one working and one reference electrode) can be connected to every storage cell. Individual reference electrodes, however are not required and can be replaced with one or more common reference electrodes connected to all or to a subset of all of the storage elements in a particular device. Alternatively, the common reference electrodes can be replaced with one or more conductive “backplanes” each communicating to all, or to a subset, of the storage cells in a particular device.

Where the storage cells contain identical storage media, each storage cell is preferably addressed with a separate working electrode so that the storage (oxidation) states of the storage cells can be distinguished from each other. Where the storage cells contain different storage media such that the oxidation states of one storage cell is different and distinguishable from the oxidation states of another storage cell, the storage cells are preferably addressed by a common working electrode thereby reducing the number of electrodes in a device.

In one preferred embodiment, the storage devices of this invention contain 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024 or more storage locations per layer (64, 128, 256, 512, 1024 or more locations in the mirror image architecture) with each location capable of holding a multiple-bit SHMU or DHMU word. Accordingly, a preferred 1024-bit SHMU or a preferred 512-bit DHMU chip will contain 8 wiring interconnects on each of the three electrode grids in the 3 dimensional WPDRDPW architecture illustrated in FIG. 4.

D) Characterization of the Memory Device.

The performance (e.g. operating characteristics) of the memory devices of this invention is characterized by any of a wide variety of methods, most preferably by electrochemical methods (amperometry, sinusoidal voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy, see, e.g., Howell et al. (1986) Electroanal. Chem., 209: 77–90; Singhal et al. (1997) Anal. Chem., 69:1662–1668; Schick et al. (1989) Am. Chem. Soc. 111: 1344–1350), atomic force microscopy, electron microscopy and imaging spectroscopic methods. Surface-enhanced resonance and Raman spectroscopy are also used to examine the storage medium on the electrodes.

Among other parameters, characterization of the memory devices (e.g., memory cells) involves determining the number of storage medium molecules (e.g., porphyrin arrays) required for defect-tolerant operation. Defect tolerance includes factors such as reliably depositing the required number of holes to write the desired digit and accurately detecting the numbers/hopping rates of the holes.

The long-term resistance of electron holes to charge-recombination in the solid-phase medium of the device package is also determined. Using these parameters, the device architecture can be optimized for commercial fabrication.

IV. Architecture of the Storage Medium.

The storage medium used in the devices of this invention comprises one or more species of storage molecule. A preferred storage medium is characterized by having a multiplicity of oxidation states. Those oxidation states are provided by one or more redox-active units. A redox-active unit refers to a molecule or to a subunit of a molecule that has one or more discrete oxidation states that can be set by application of an appropriate voltage. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, the storage medium can comprise one species of redox-active molecule where that molecule has two or more (e.g. 8) different and distinguishable oxidation states. Typically, but not necessarily, such multi-state molecules will be composed of several redox-active units (e.g. porphyrins or ferrocenes). In another exemplary embodiment, the storage medium can comprise two or more different species of storage molecule. Each storage molecule comprises at least one redox-active unit, but can easily contain two or more redox-active units. Where each species of storage molecule has a single, non-neutral, oxidation state, the storage medium achieves multiple bit storage by having a plurality of such molecules where each molecule has a different and distinguishable oxidation state (e.g. each species of molecule oxidizes at a different and distinguishable potential). Of course, each species of molecule can have a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states. Thus, a storage medium comprising eight different species of storage molecule where each of the eight species has eight different and distinguishable oxidation states, will be able to store 64 (8×8) bits of information.

As indicated above, the storage medium can be broken down into individual, e.g., spatially segregated, storage locations. Each storage element can have a storage medium that is the same or different from the other storage elements in the chip and/or system. Where the storage elements are of identical composition, in preferred embodiments, they are separately addressed so that information in one element can be distinguished from information in another element. Where the storage elements are of different composition they can be commonly addressed (where the oxidation states of the commonly addressed storage elements are distinguishable) or they can be individually addressed.

In certain preferred embodiments the storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric medium to insure electrical connectivity to a reference voltage (e.g. a reference electrode, a reference backplane, etc.). In particularly preferred embodiments, a layer of dielectric material is imbedded with counterions to ensure electrical connectivity to the reference electrode and stability of the cationic species in the absence of applied potential (latching) is disposed between the reference working electrode(s).

Dielectric materials suitable for the devices of this invention are well known to those of skill in the art. Such materials include, but are not limited to nafion, cellulose acetate, polystyrene sulfonate, poly(vinylpyridine), electronically conducting polymers such as polypyrrolic acid and polyaniline, etc.

The porphyrinic macrocycles identified herein are ideally suited for molecular based memory storage. The porphyrinic macrocycles, and especially the porphyrins, have unique electroactive properties, a well-developed modular synthetic chemistry, and in conjunction with thiols, and other linkers described herein, undergo directed self-assembly on electroactive surfaces.

In addition, as described below, the porphyrinic macrocycles are well suited for the design of multi-bit storage systems. In preferred embodiments, this invention contemplates three fundamental architectures for the storage medium; static hole single-unit (SHSU) storage (e.g. SHSU molecules), static hole multi-unit (SHMU) storage (e.g. SHSU molecules), and dynamic hole multi-unit (DHMU) storage (e.g. DHMU molecules).

A) Static Hole Single Unit (SHSU) Storage.

In the simplest embodiments of this invention, the storage medium comprises one or more molecules wherein each molecule has one non-neutral oxidation state. Thus, each molecule is capable of storing one bit (e.g. bit=1 when oxidized and bit=0 when neutral). A number of different species of static hole single unit storage molecules can be assembled into a single storage medium. Thus, for example a number of different ferrocenes, or a number of different porphyrins, or combinations of porphyrin and ferrocene monomers can be combined into a single storage medium.

In one preferred embodiment, a molecule comprising a static hole single unit molecular memory has the formula shown in Formula I.

where L is a linker, M is a metal (e.g., Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Ni, Ti, Nb, Mn, Re, V, Cr, W), S¹ and S² are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. In preferred embodiments, a substituted aryl group is attached to the porphyrin, and the substituents on the aryl group are selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. Particularly preferred substituents include, but are not limited to, 4-chlorophenyl, 3-acetamidophenyl, 2,4-dichloro-4-trifluoromethyl). Preferred substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. It will be appreciated that in some embodiments, L—X can be replaced with another substituent (S³) like S¹ or S². In certain embodiments, L—X can be present or absent, and when present preferably is 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, or 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.

The oxidation state of molecules of Formula I is determined by the metal and the substituents. Thus, particular preferred embodiments are illustrated by Formulas I–VII, (listed sequentially) below:

The ferrocenes listed above in Formulas II through VII provide a convenient series of one-bit molecules having different and distinguishable oxidation states. Thus the molecules of Formulas II through VII have oxidation states (E_(1/2)) of +0.55 V, +0.48V, +0.39 V, +0.17 V, −0.05 V, and −0.18 V, respectively, and provide a convenient series of molecules for incorporation into a storage medium of this invention. It will be appreciated that the oxidation states of the members of the series can be routinely altered by changing the metal (M) or the substituents.

B) Static Hole Multi-Unit (SHSU) Storage.

Static hole multi-unit (SHSU) molecular memories typically comprise a multiplicity of redox-active subunits. In a preferred embodiment, the redox-active subunits are covalently linked to form a single molecule and are selected to have different and distinguishable oxidation states, preferably a multiplicity of different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. Thus, in this configuration a single molecule can have multiple (e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 512 etc.) different non-neutral oxidation states.

In one particularly preferred embodiment the static hole multi-unit molecular memory is a “static hole multiporphyrin molecular memory” (SHMMM) storage system. In this embodiment, the redox-active subunits are porphyrinic macrocycles, most preferably porphyrins. The porphyrins can be arranged in a wide variety of configurations (e.g. linear polymers, branched polymers, arrays, etc.), however, linear configurations are well suited to the practice of this invention.

One particularly preferred linear configuration is illustrated by Formula VIII.

where S¹, S², S³, and S⁴ are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, M¹, M², M³, and M⁴ are independently selected metals (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn), K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, K⁸, K⁹, K¹⁰, K¹¹, K¹², K¹³, K¹⁴, K¹⁵, and K¹⁶ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH, J¹, J², and J³ are independently selected linkers, L¹, L², L³, and L⁴ are present or absent and, when present are independently selected linkers, X¹, X², X³, and X⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate, and E¹ and E² are terminating substituents independently aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, or carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. In preferred embodiments, the molecule has at least two, preferably at least 4, more preferably at least 8, and most preferably at least 16, at least 32, at least 64 or at least 128 different and distinguishable oxidation states. In some embodiments, one or more of the linker/reactive site subunits (L¹—X¹, L²—X², L³—X³, or L⁴—X⁴), can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S¹, S², S³, or S⁴.

In preferred embodiments, the substituents are selected so that the molecule illustrated by Formula XVIII has at least 2, more preferably at least 4 and most preferably at least 8 different and distinguishable oxidation states.

In certain preferred embodiments, J¹, J², and J³ are independently 4,4′-diphenylethyne, 4,4′-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4′-biphenyl, 1-4-phenylene, 4,4′-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4′-azobenzene, 4,4′-benzylideneaniline, or 4,4″-terphenyl.

L¹—X¹, L²—X², L³—X³, and L⁴—X⁴ are independently present or absent and, when present, can include 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.

In a particularly preferred embodiment, K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, K⁸, K⁹, K¹⁰, K¹¹, K¹², K¹³, K¹⁴, K¹⁵, and K¹⁶ are the same, M¹ and M³ are the same, M² and M⁴ are the same and different from M¹ and M³, S¹ and S² are the same; and S³ and S⁴ are the same and different from S¹ and S².

In a most preferred embodiment, the metals (M¹, M², M³, and M⁴) and the substituents (S¹, S², S³, and S⁴) are selected so that each porphyrin has two non-neutral oxidation states. L¹—X¹, L²—X², L³—X³, and L⁴—X⁴ provide convenient linkers for attaching the molecule to a substrate (e.g. an electrode). With each subunit having two oxidation states, the subunits can be configured so that the entire molecule has 8 different and distinguishable oxidation states. One such molecule is illustrated by Formula IX.

The porphyrin metalation state alters between Mg and Zn in proceeding from one end to the other. The different metalation state alters the redox characteristics of the porphyrins. In particular, magnesium porphyrins are more easily oxidized than zinc porphyrins. Differentiation of the oxidation potentials of the left-most pair of Zn and Mg porphyrins from those of the right-most pair is achieved through the use of different substituents (Ar², right pair; Ar¹, left pair) attached to the meso- (and/or to the β-) positions. The porphyrins are joined via linkers (e.g. p,p′-diarylethyne linkers). These constrain the porphyrins at fixed distances from each other. In addition, each porphyrin bears a linker (e.g., a thiol) for attachment to an electroactive surface such as gold.

Information is stored in the SHMU storage molecule by removing electrons from the porphyrin constituents (leaving a hole and forming a 1-cation radical (Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 11191–11201; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem. 7: 1245–1262, and Seth et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118: 11194–11207; Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116: 10578–10592). The redox characteristics of the Zn and Mg porphyrins in conjunction with the substituents Ar¹ and Ar² permit oxidation to form in sequence, (MgAr¹⁽⁺⁾, others neutral), (MgAr¹⁽⁺⁾, ZnAr¹⁽⁺⁾, with MgAr² and ZnAr² neutral], and so forth until two holes have been removed from all of the four metalloporphyrins, i.e., [MgAr¹⁽⁺⁺⁾, ZnAr¹⁽⁺⁺⁾, MgA²⁽⁺⁺⁾, ZnAr²⁽⁺⁺⁾]. Thus, up to eight holes can be stored in the memory with each unique oxidation state serving as a digit of a basic eight-bit memory element. This is illustrated below in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Bit architecture in a prototype SHMU storage molecule. Subunit P1 Subunit P2 Subunit P3 Subunit P4 Memory MgAr¹ ZnAr¹ MgAr² ZnAr² “parity” 0 0 0 0 000 + 0 0 0 001 + + 0 0 010 ++ + 0 0 011 ++ ++ 0 0 100 ++ ++ + 0 101 ++ ++ + + 110 ++ ++ ++ + 111 ++ ++ ++ ++

The synthetic methodologies already established permit the extension of the linear architecture, thus increasing the dynamic range of the basic memory element well beyond the three bits indicated. Conversely, the molecule could be reduced to two subunits thereby encoding 2 bits (+“parity”). In addition, subunits can be engineered that have more than two oxidation states. Thus for example, molecules and/or subunits can be engineered that have virtually any number (e.g., 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, etc.) of different and distinguishable oxidation states.

In other embodiments, single molecule, non-polymeric molecules can maintain multiple oxidation states and thereby support multiple bits. In preferred embodiments, such molecules comprise multiple redox-active subunits. Certain preferred molecules have 2, 3, 5, 8, or even more different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. One such molecule is illustrated by Formula XI.

where, F is a redox-active subunit (e.g., a ferrocene, a substituted ferrocene, a metalloporphyrin, or a metallochlorin, etc.), J¹ is a linker, M is a metal (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn), S¹ and S² are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments L—X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S¹ or S².

In preferred embodiments, the molecule has at least three different and distinguishable oxidation states. Particularly preferred variants of this storage molecule are illustrated by Formulas XII, XIII, and XIV, below:

where K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, and K⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; S² and S³ are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts, and M² is a metal (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn). These molecules can exist in three different and distinguishable oxidation states. The values of the oxidation states are determined by the metal (M), the substituent(s) (S¹, S², and S²), and the redox-active subunit (e.g. porphyrin, chlorin, or ferrocene).

Even more preferred embodiments include the molecules of Formulas XV, XVI, and XVII.

A molecule capable of storing even more information is illustrated in Formula XVIII.

where M is a metal (e.g., Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn), F¹, F², and F³ are independently selected ferrocenes or substituted ferrocenes, J¹, J², and J³ are independently selected linkers, K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments, L—X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent (i.e., a ferrocene, a substituted ferrocene, aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. Preferred substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt. In preferred embodiments, J¹, J², and J³ are selected from the group consisting of 4,4′-diphenylethyne, 4,4′-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4′-biphenyl, 1-4-phenylene, 4,4′-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4′-azobenzene, 4,4′-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4″-terphenyl.

In certain particularly preferred embodiments, in the molecules of Formula XVIII, K¹, K², K³ and K⁴ are the same, M is a metal selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Pb, Al, Ga, and Sn, J², J², and J³ are the same; and F¹, F², and F³ are all different. One preferred embodiment is a 5 bit molecule illustrated by Formula XIX.

In this example, two oxidation states are determined by the porphyrin, and the remaining three states are determined by the three ferrocenes.

Still another preferred embodiment, includes molecules represented by Formula XX:

where K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); S¹, S², and S³ are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; L is present or absent and, when present, is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments L—X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S¹ or S². Preferred substituents (S¹, S², or S³) provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. In some preferred variants M is Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, or Sn. More preferably M is Zn, Mg, or (H,H). In some preferred variants, S is mesityl, C₆F₅, 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, or n-pentyl. In some preferred variants, S¹, S², and S³ are independently CONH(Et), COCH₃, or H. In some particularly preferred variants, L—X is absent or present, and when present, L—X is 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, or 4(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.

In some more preferred embodiments of Formula XX, S¹, S², and S³ are all the same, K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are all N; and L is p-thiophenyl. M is then preferably Zn or (H,H). Particularly preferred variants are listed in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Preferred variants of Formula XX. S¹ and/or Variant S² and/or S³ X M 1 Mesityl SCONH(Et) H, H 2 Mesityl SCONH(Et) Zn 3 Mesityl SCOCH₃ H, H 4 Mesityl SCOCH₃ Zn 5 Mesityl SH Zn 6 C6F₅ SCONH(Et) H, H 7 C₆F₅ SH Zn 8 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl SCONH(Et) H, H 9 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl SCONH(Et) Zn 10 n-pentyl SCONH(Et) H, H 11 n-pentyl SH Zn In particularly preferred variants of the compounds indicated in Table 2, L can be a phenyl.

Other preferred molecules are illustrated by Formula XXI:

where K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); L¹, L², and L³, and L⁴ are independently present or absent and, when present, are linkers; and X¹, X², X³, and X⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. In some embodiments L—X can be eliminated and/or replaced with a substituent independently selected from various substituents such as aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl. Preferred substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt.

In preferred embodiments, M is Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Pb, Al, Ga, or Sn and in some embodiments, M is more preferably Zn, Mg, or (H,H). In certain preferred embodiments, L¹—X¹, L²—X², L³—X³, and L⁴—X⁴ are independently present or absent and, when present, are independently 3-mercaptophenyl, 3-mercaptomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3-mercaptomethylphenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-hydroselenophenyl, 3-hydroselenomethylphenyl, 3-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-(2-(3-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 3-hydrotellurophenyl, 3-hydrotelluromethylphenyl and 3-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, or 3-(2-(3-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.

Particularly preferred variants of Formula XXI are illustrated by the compounds of Formulas XXII, XXIII, and XXIV:

Using the examples and teaching provided herein, one of skill can produce a virtually limitless supply of data storage molecules suitable for use in the SHMU storage format of the apparatus of this invention.

C) Dynamic Hole Multi-Unit (DHMU) Storage.

In another embodiment, the data storage medium used in the devices of this invention includes one or more molecules that act as a dynamic multi-unit (DHMU) molecular memory storage. In one embodiment, such a storage molecule comprises a porphyrinic macrocycle containing at least two porphyrins of equal energies held apart from each other at a spacing less than about 50 Å such that said molecule has an odd hole oxidation state permitting the hole to hop between said two porphyrins and wherein said odd hole oxidation state is different from and distinguishable from another oxidation state of said porphyrinic macrocycle.

The basic unit of a dynamic hole multi-unit storage molecule is illustrated by Formula XXV.

where P² is a redox-active subunit having an oxidation potential higher than P¹ or P³ and P¹ and P³ have the essentially the same oxidation potential. Thus, when an electron is withdrawn from the molecule, the “hole” does not reside on P¹ and, instead, “hops” from P¹ to P³ and back again. Data are stored in the “hopping” hole. As will be explained below, this permits interrogation of the molecule without resetting the state of the molecule. Accordingly, a “read” can be performed without a “refresh”.

One particularly preferred DHMU storage molecule is illustrated by Formula XXVI:

where P¹, P³, P⁴, and P⁶ are independently selected porphyrinic macrocycles; J¹, J², J³, and J⁴ are independently selected linkers that permit electron transfer between the porphyrinic macrocycles; P² and P⁵ are independently selected metallo-free porphyrinic macrocycles; and Q is a linker. Preferred “Q” linkers include, but are not limited to linkers such as 1,4-bis(4-terphen-4″-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne), or linkers comprised of 1,12-carboranyl (C₂B₁₀H₁₂), 1,10-carboranyl (C₂B₈H₁₀), [n]staffane, 1,4-cubanediyl, 1,4-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanediyl, phenylethynyl, or p-phenylene units.

One particularly preferred variant of this molecule is illustrated in Formula XXVII.

where M¹ and M² are independently selected metals; S¹, S², S³, S⁴, S⁵, S⁶, S⁷, and S⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, and K⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L¹ and L² are independently selected linkers; and X¹ and X² are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate. Preferred substituents (S¹, S², S³, S⁴, S⁵, S⁶, S⁷ or S⁸) provide a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, more preferably less than about 2 volts, and most preferably less than about 1 volt. In some embodiments L—X can be eliminated and replaced with a substituent independently selected from the same group as S¹–S⁸.

In particularly preferred DHMU storage molecules of Formula XXVII, S¹, S², S³, S⁵, S⁶, S⁷, are the same, S⁴ and S⁸ are the same; K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁷, and K⁸ are the same, J¹, J², J³ and J⁴ are the same; and M¹ and M² are different. A preferred species is illustrated by Formula XXVIII:

The overall architecture of these molecule consists of linear trimers (e.g. like Formula XXV) joined together by a linker (e.g., a 1,4-bis(4-terphen-4″-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne) unit). In some preferred embodiments, trimers consist of metallo-free base-metallo porphyrins (see, e.g., Formula XVIII).

In preferred embodiments, the peripheral porphyrins in a given trimer have identical metals and substituents engendering equivalent redox potentials. The core free base porphyrins each have perfluorophenyl substituents to render the porphyrins more resistant to oxidation. The central linker (e.g., a 1,4-bis(4-terphen-4″-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne)) serves as a structural unit to hold the trimers together. In addition, each porphyrin bears a linker (e.g., ap-thiophenol unit) for assembly on electroactive surfaces. This nanostructure, although complex in appearance, is in fact substantially smaller than other nanostructures synthesized and known in the prior art.

Information is stored in the dynamic hole memory via oxidation of the porphyrinic macrocycles as described above for the static-hole memory. However, there are certain key differences that distinguish the two types of memory elements that are illustrated by reference to Formula XXVIII. In compounds of Formula XXVIII, the oxidation potentials of the two Mg porphyrins are essentially identical to one another (the difference is less than thermal energy at room temperature), as is also the case for the two Zn porphyrins. Thus, oxidation results in the following sequence of states: [MgP₁ ⁺, others neutral], [MgP₁ ⁺, MgP₂ ⁺, both ZnP₃ and ZnP₄ neutral], [MgP₁ ⁺, MgP₂ ⁺, ZnP₃ ⁺, ZnP₄ ⁺], [MgP₁ ⁺⁺, MgP₂ ⁺, ZnP₃ ⁺, ZnP₄ ⁺], [MgP₁ ⁺⁺, MgP₂ ⁺⁺⁾, ZnP₃ ⁺, ZnP₄ ⁺], and so forth until two holes have been removed from each metalloporphyrin, i.e. [MgP₁ ⁺⁺, MgP₂ ⁺⁺, ZnP₃ ⁺⁺, ZnP₄ ⁺⁺]. Thus, up to eight holes can again be stored in the nanostructure.

However, the cases where one hole (or three holes) resides on either the Mg or the Zn porphyrins are unique. For these odd-hole oxidation states, the hole(s) rapidly hop between the two metalloporphyrins (100's of KHz to 100's of MHz, depending on the type of porphyrin. In contrast, when each Mg or Zn porphyrin contains the same number of holes, no hopping can occur.

In a preferred embodiment, information is stored only via the hole-hopping states of the multiporphyrin nanostructure, hence the designation “dynamic-hole” multi-unit storage. The encoding of a prototypical DHMU storage cell using the hole-hopping states is shown in FIG. 5 (the double-headed arrows indicate hole hopping). The synthetic methodologies already established permit extension of the architecture via addition of other trimeric units wherein the oxidation potential of the metalloporphyrin is different from that of the others, thus increasing the dynamic range of the basic memory element beyond that shown.

D) Tightly Coupled Storage Molecules.

As indicated above, the use of tightly coupled subunits permits the creation of a storage molecule/storage medium having multiple different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states. In particular, the juxtaposition of the subunits at a spacing that permits strong (tight) coupling between the two subunits results in a splitting of the redox potentials of the structurally identical units. In this manner, identical porphyrins can be used in the construction of a storage molecule capable of storing many bits of information thereby resulting in substantial efficiencies in the construction of storage media.

This is illustrated with respect to a porphyrin. A monomeric porphyrin has three accessible oxidation states (neutral, mono-cation, dication), the precise level of which can be tuned through synthetic variation of peripheral substituents, central metal, and use of skeletal atoms other than nitrogen.

One example of a tightly coupled dimeric porphyrin array that we have investigated is shown below in Formula XXIX (porphyrin dimer XXIX). This molecule has two zinc porphyrins linked to each other at the porphyrin meso-positions.

The synthesis of this porphyrin dimer was accomplished using methods for preparing building block porphyrins (Cho et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 7890–7901).

Electrochemical examination of porphyrin dimer XXIX revealed oxidation waves at +0.49 and +0.66 V for the formation of the monocation of the two porphyrins comprising the porphyrin dimer. This is in contrast to the single oxidation wave for the corresponding porphyrin monomer which is expected at +0.58 V. The appearance of two waves in porphyrin dimer XXIX indicates that the oxidation of the first porphyrin forming the monocation shifts the potential of the second porphyrin to higher potential. This shift in potential provides the opportunity to access distinct and different oxidation potentials in a multiporphyrin array where each porphyrin is identical. In this example, the porphyrin dimer I has four non-zero oxidation states as illustrated in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Oxidation potentials observed in porphyrin dimer XXIX. Oxidation potential (V) Redox-active unit 0.49 dimer oxidation potential 1 0.66 dimer oxidation potential 2 0.95 dimer oxidation potential 3 1.03 dimer oxidation potential 4 In this example, four different and distinguishable non-zero oxidation states are available in the resulting dimer, but construction of the storage molecule required synthesis of only a single subunit (porphyrin monomer). This dramatically reduces the complexity and cost of the creation of suitable storage molecules for use in the storage devices of this invention.

The principle is generalizable. One is not limited to the construction of tightly coupled dimers. It is also possible to construct tightly coupled trimers and longer oligomers having more different and distinguishable oxidation states.

In addition, the constituent subunits need not be limited to porphyrins. Essentially any molecule that has multiple different and distinguishable oxidation states and that can be tightly coupled to produce molecules having even more different and distinguishable oxidation states can be used as a subunit. Such molecules include, but are not limited to a porphyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene (e.g. a ferrocene), a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2′-bipyridyl, a 4,4′-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide, and the like.

A pair of subunits is said to be strongly coupled when coupling of the subunits (e.g. porphyrins) increases the number of distinct and distinguishable oxidation states above the number of oxidation states available in the separate pair of subunits. In the case of the dimer of Formula I, the two separate subunits each have one non-zero oxidation state, but the dimer has four non-zero oxidation states and is thus essentially strongly coupled for the purposes of this invention.

Tight coupling is typically achieved by directly covalently linking the two subunits. In certain, instances, however, the subunits may be joined by a linker and/or joined by coordination to a metal, as long as the subunits are positioned closely enough together that they are functionally “tightly coupled.” One example of subunits tightly coupled by coordination to a metal is provided by the lanthanide porphyrinic “sandwich” molecules. These include, but are not limited, to a variety of double-decker and triple-decker sandwich molecules comprised of porphyrinic molecules and metals (e.g. metals of the lanthanide series such as La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Th, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu and Y which has properties similar to lanthanides) (see, e.g., Jiang et al. (1997) Inorg. Chim. Acta, 255: 59–64; Ng and Jiang (1997) J. Chem. Soc. Rev., 26: 433–442; Chabach et al. (1996) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 35: 898–899). Sandwich structures have also been made using Zr, Hf, Th, and U.

Methods of determining when molecules are tightly coupled are well known to those of skill in the art. Using optical spectrographic methods, tightly coupled molecules will be revealed as perturbations in the optical spectra of the tightly coupled molecule. Thus, typically when an electron is removed from the system it will typically be accompanied an electronic transition (mixed valence transition).

Similarly when examining the vibrational spectrum of the system (e.g. via infrared or raman spectroscopy) a weakly coupled system shows a neutral and a cation signature. As the system becomes more tightly coupled, the neutral and cation signature diminish and the system shows a characteristic signature at a frequency between the neutral and the cation frequency (Donohoe et al. (1988) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 110: 6119–6124). It is understood that the subunits could be so tightly coupled that the redox processes are those of a single supermolecule.

In a preferred embodiment, the system is designed to provide multiple distinct and distinguishable oxidation states in a redox potential range of less than about 5 volts, preferably less than about 2 volts, more preferably less than about 1 volt. While the oxidation states are different and distinguishable at a difference of at least 1 mV, preferably at least 5 mV, and more preferably at least 10 mV, in particularly preferred embodiments, the oxidation states are separated from each other by at least about 25 mV, preferably by at least 50 mV, more preferably by at least about 100 mV, and most preferably by at least about 130–150 mV.

As indicated above, in certain preferred embodiments, the storage molecules of this invention, are polymeric molecules comprising two or more monomeric subunits. In particularly preferred embodiments the subunits are identical or perhaps differ only in the presence or absence of a linker for attachment to the electrode. Use of essentially identical subunits substantially reduces the synthetic chemistry required to produce a storage device resulting in substantially more efficient and less error-prone device assembly and substantial savings of labor and cost.

In this approach, preferred subunits (monomers comprising the multimeric (array) molecule are porphyrinic macrocycles or metallocenes with porphyrinic macrocycles being most preferred. In one particularly preferred embodiments, a pair of the tightly coupled subunits has the following structure shown in Formula XXX:

where S¹, S², S³, and S⁴ are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl and the substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts. Alternatively, one or more of S¹, S², S³, and S⁴ are —L—X where —L—X, when present is optionally present on one or both subunits and L, when present, is a linker; X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; M is a metal; and K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH. In certain preferred embodiments, S¹, S², and S³ are independently selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C₆F₅, 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, phenyl, p-tolyl, p-(tert-butyl)phenyl, 3,5-dimethylphenyl, 3,5-di(tert-butyl)phenyl, 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl, 3,5-dialkoxyphenyl, and n-pentyl. In certain preferred embodiments, —L—X is selected from the group consisting 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, 2-(4mercaptophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl, 2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl. Of course, the molecule need not be a dimer, in which case one or more of S¹, S², S³, or S⁴ can independently be another subunit.

In a particularly preferred embodiment, S¹ and S³ are both the same; and K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are all the same (e.g. N). Various preferred embodiments are listed above in Formula XXIX and below in Formulas XXXI, XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXIV.

Information is stored in the storage molecule by removing electrons from the porphyrin constituents (leaving a hole and forming a π-cation radical (Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 11191–11201; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem. 7: 1245–1262, and Seth et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118: 11194–11207; Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116: 10578–10592). The redox characteristics of the subunits are adjusted by selection of the metal (M) and the substituents (e.g. S¹, S², S³).

The synthetic methodologies already established permit the extension of the linear architecture, thus increasing the dynamic range of this basic memory element well beyond the four bits indicated in Table 3. In addition, subunits can be engineered that have more than two oxidation states and more complex subunits can be utilized (e.g. subunits each comprising a porphyrinic macrocycle coupled to a metallocene). Thus for example, molecules and/or subunits can be engineered that have virtually any number (e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, etc.) of different and distinguishable oxidation states.

V. Synthesis and Characterization of Storage Medium Molecule(s).

A) Designing Oxidation States into the Storage Medium Molecule(s).

Control over the hole-storage and hole-hopping properties of the redox-active units of the storage molecules used in the memory devices of this invention allows fine control over the architecture of the memory device.

Such control is exercised through synthetic design. The hole-storage properties depend on the oxidation potential of the redox-active units or subunits that are themselves or are that are used to assemble the storage media used in the devices of this invention. The hole-storage properties and redox potential can be tuned with precision by choice of base molecule(s), associated metals and peripheral substituents (Yang et al. (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 3: 117–147).

For example, in the case of porphyrins, Mg porphyrins are more easily oxidized than Zn porphyrins, and electron withdrawing or electron releasing aryl groups can modulate the oxidation properties in predictable ways. Hole-hopping occurs among isoenergetic porphyrins in a nanostructure and is mediated via the covalent linker joining the porphyrins (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116: 10578–10592, Seth et al (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11194–11207, Strachanet al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 11191–11201; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262, Strachan et al. (1998) Inorg. Chem., 37: 1191–1201, Yang et al. (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121: 4008–4018). Hole-hopping is not expected in the SHMU storage molecule(s) because each porphyrin has a different oxidation potential. Hole-hopping is expected among isoenergetic porphyrins in the DHMU molecule(s).

We have studied hole-hopping phenomena extensively in related nanostructures in solution. We also have prepared and characterized the electrochemical properties of a library of monomeric Mg or Zn porphyrins bearing diverse aryl groups (Yang et al. (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 3: 117–147). The effects of metals on metalloprophyrin oxidation potentials are well known (Fuhrhop and Mauzerall (1969) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 91: 4174–4181). Together, these provide a strong foundation for designing devices with predictable hole-storage and hole-hopping properties.

The design of compounds with predicted redox potentials is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In general, the oxidation potentials of redox-active units or subunits are well known to those of skill in the art and can be looked up (see, e.g., Handbook of Electrochemistry of the Elements). Moreover, in general, the effects of various substituents on the redox potentials of a molecule are generally additive. Thus, a theoretical oxidation potential can be readily predicted for any potential data storage molecule. The actual oxidation potential, particularly the oxidation potential of the information storage molecule(s) or the information storage medium can be measured according to standard methods. Typically the oxidation potential is predicted by comparison of the experimentally determined oxidation potential of a base molecule and that of a base molecule bearing one substituent in order to determine the shift in potential due to that particular substituent. The sum of such substituent-dependent potential shifts for the respective substituents then gives the predicted oxidation potential.

In addition, the oxidation potential shift produced by tightly coupling the molecules can be predicted by methods well known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Citation). The actual oxidation states can be empirically determined as described herein.

B) Synthesis of Storage Medium Molecules.

The basic synthetic methodologies used to construct the storage medium molecules of this invention are described in Prathapan et al (1993) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115: 7519–7520, Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266–5273, Nishino et al (1996) J. Org. Chem., 61: 7534–7544, Wagner etal. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11166–11180, Strachan et al (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 11191–11201, and Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262. These papers describe various strategies for the synthesis of a number of multi-porphyrin (porphyrinic macrocycle) compounds. More particularly, these papers which focus on light capture, energy funneling, and optical gating, has led to the preparation of nanostructures containing up to 21 covalently linked porphyrins (Fenyo et al. (1997) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1: 93–99, Mongin et al (1998) J. Org. Chem., 63: 5568–5580, Burrell and Officer (1998) Synlett 1297–1307, Mak et al (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3020–3023, Nakano et al (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3023–3027, Mak et al (1999) Chem. Commun., 1085–1086). Two-dimensional architectures, such as molecular squares (Wagner et al (1998) J. Org. Chem., 63: 5042–5049), T-shapes (Johnson, T. E. (1995), Ph.D. Thesis, Carnegie Mellon University), and starbursts (Li et al (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262) all comprised of different covalently linked porphyrin constituents, have also been prepared.

In addition, the hole storage and dynamic hole mobility characteristics of the multiporphyrin nanostructures have been investigated in detail during the course of our other studies of these materials (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116: 10578–10592, Seth et al (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11194–11207, Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 11191–11201; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262, Strachan et al. (1998) Inorg. Chem., 37: 1191–1201, Yang et al. (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121: 4008–4018).

The general synthetic strategy preferably involves the following approaches: (1) a synthesis of the subunit(s) comprising the storage molecules of this invention; (2) coupling of the subunits, if necessary, to form the polymeric storage molecules; and (3) the directed self-assembly of the resulting structures on electrode (e.g. gold electrode) surfaces.

The methods for synthesis, purification, and characterization for the molecular memory molecules (MMMs) generally follow those employed in the modular stepwise synthesis (Lindsey et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941–8968) of molecular wires (Wagner et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116: 9759–9760), optoelectronic gates (Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 3996–3997) and light-harvesting nanostructures (Prathapan et al. (1993) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115: 7519–7520, Johnson, T. E. (1995), Ph.D. Thesis, Carnegie Mellon University, Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11166–11180, Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262, and Li et al. (1998) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 120: 10001–10017). In certain preferred embodiments, the following synthetic methods form the foundation for the building block synthesis of porphyrin building blocks:

-   -   (1) A room temperature one-flask synthesis of meso-substituted         porphyrins (Lindsey et al. (1987) J. Org. Chem. 52: 827–836,         Lindsey et al. (1994) J. Org. Chem. 59: 579–587, Li et         al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 12339–12360.).     -   (2) Incorporation of bulky groups around the porphyrin to         achieve enhanced solubility in organic solvents (Lindsey and         Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828–836).     -   (3) A one-flask synthesis of dipyrromethanes, key building         blocks in the synthesis of porphyrins bearing 2–4 different         meso-substituents (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50:         11427–11440, Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391–1396).     -   (4) A synthesis of trans-substituted porphyrins without         acidolytic scrambling (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64:         2864–2872).     -   (5) A rational synthesis of porphyrins bearing up to 4 different         meso-substituents (Lee et al. (1995) Tetrahedron, 51:         11645–11672, Cho et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 7890–7901).     -   (6) Mild methods for inserting magnesium (Lindsey and         Woodford (1995) Inorg. Chem. 34: 1063–1069, O'Shea et al. (1996)         Inorg. Chem., 35: 7325–7338) or other metals (Buchler, J. W. In         The Porphyrins; Dolphin, D. Ed.; Academic Press: New York. 1978;         Vol. I, pp. 389–483) into porphyrins.     -   (7) A general approach for preparing thiol-derivatized porphyrin         building blocks including various protecting groups for the         thiol moiety (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634–8647).

In one embodiment, building blocks are synthesized using methods described by Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11166–11180, Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 11191–11201, Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 3996–3997, Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262; Lindsey et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941–8968; Wagner et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116: 9759–9760; Lindsey and Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828–836; Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427–11440; Lee et al. (1995) Tetrahedron, 51: 11645–11672; Lindsey and Woodford (1995) Inorg. Chem. 34: 1063–1069; and Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266–5273.

The synthesis of the molecules that form the basis for the storage molecules (e.g., SHMU storage molecules, DHMU storage molecules, etc.) is performed using a modular building block approach. This approach employs a stepwise synthesis (rather than polymerization) and yields highly purified and well-characterized products. One approach, utilizes a series of redox-active “building blocks” (e.g., a series of monomeric porphyrinic macrocycles or ferrocene constituents) that can be linked to the gold substrate that will serve as one of the electrodes in the chip. Preferred monomeric redox-active units that are prepared have different oxidation potentials that fall in the range from 0 to 1.3 volts.

The two different redox-active units can be linked together to form a basic dimeric architecture. Similarly, two other different redox-active units (e.g. porphyrins) can be linked to form a second dimeric architecture. Then the two dimers can be linked to form a linear, or non-linear, tetrameric architecture consisting of four different types of redox-active units (e.g., porphyrins).

One example of a preferred synthesis approach is shown in FIG. 6. The reaction of 5-mesityldipyrromethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427–11440) with two aldehydes affords three porphyrins, including the desired mono-thiol porphyrin. The latter is metalated with Zn or Mg, and then the thiol protecting group can be removed. Of the various thiol protecting groups (Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 36: 4525–4528; Ricci et al. (1977) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Transactions I., 1069–1073) the S-acetyl or S-(N-ethyl-carbamoyl) group is stable toward the required synthetic conditions yet cleaved easily with methanolic diethylamine. The useful precursor 4-mercaptobenzaldehyde is readily available (Young et al. (1984) Tetrahedron Lett., 25: 1753–1756). The resulting porphyrin mono-thiol can be assembled on a gold surface, or the protected thiol can be deprotected in situ on a gold surface.

The synthesis of an SHMU storage molecule is shown in FIG. 7. Four porphyrin building blocks are employed in the synthesis of this nanostructure. Each building block is available via established synthetic routes (either via the route we established for ABCD-porphyrins or via a 3+1 route involving a tripyrrane) (Lee et al. (1995) Tetrahedron, 51: 11645–11672). The fundamental methodology for joining the porphyrin building blocks involves Pd-mediated coupling of an ethynyl-porphyrin and an iodo-porphyrin (Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266–5273). Our optimized conditions for these coupling reactions afford 60–80% yields in 2–4 h. Purification is achieved using size-exclusion chromatography and characterization is accomplished with laser desorption mass spectrometry (see, e.g., Fenyo et al. (1997) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1: 93–99). This synthetic route is tolerant toward diverse aryl groups and metals in the porphyrin unit.

The stepwise synthesis makes available the dimeric unit of the SHMU storage molecule upon one cycle of coupling. The dimer will be examined electrochemically. Following cleavage of the S-acetyl protecting group, the thiols may undergo oxidative coupling (forming the disulfides) during handling and processing. Such disulfides can be reduced to regenerate the thiols, or deposited on gold surfaces whereupon reduction in situ yields the bound thiol species. Alternatively, the S-acetyl groups can be cleaved in situ upon exposure to the metal (e.g., gold) surface (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 117: 9529–9534). A number of porphyrin thiols have been prepared and deposited on metals but not for memory storage applications (see, e.g., Zak et al. (1993) Langmuir, 9: 2772–2774; Hutchison et al. (1993) Langmuir 9: 3277–3283; Bradshaw et al. (1994) Gazz. Chim. Ital. 124, 159–162; Postlethwaite et al. (1995) Langmuir, 11: 4109–4116; Akiyama et al. (1996) Chem. Lett, 907–908; Uosaki et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 8367–8368; Katz and Willner (1997) Langmuir, 13: 3364–3373; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett., 267–268; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Commun., 57–58). Nanostructures having up to 21 porphyrins are readily synthesized.

A representative synthesis of a DHMU storage molecule is shown in FIG. 8. Three porphyrin building blocks are prepared and metalated with magnesium or zinc. The synthetic strategy builds the two arms of the DHMU storage molecule separately, which are then coupled in the penultimate step of the synthesis. Each arm is constructed via two Pd-mediated couplings, yielding the respective trimers. One trimer is iodinated at the ethyne (Barluenga et al. (1987) Synthesis, 661–662; and Brunel and Rousseau (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 36: 2619–2622) then joined with the other trimer in a heterocoupling process to form the H-like structure. A variety of conditions can be employed for the heterocoupling reaction (Alami and Ferri (1996) Tetrahedron Lett., 37: 2763–2766). We previously showed that Pd-mediated (copper-free) couplings can be employed for homocoupling reactions (Wagner et al. (1995) J. Org. Chem., 60: 5266–5273). Copper-free couplings are preferred to avoid copper insertion in the free base porphyrin. Here the same Pd-mediated coupling is used to perform the heterocoupling. The final step is cleavage of the S-acetyl protecting group, which proceeds in methanolic Et₂NH. Such conditions do not alter any of the other functionalities in the molecule. Alternatively, the S-acetyl groups can be cleaved in situ upon exposure to the metal (e.g., gold) surface (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 117: 9529–9534).

General methods for joining porphyrin monomers to form linked porphyrin arrays (e.g. meso-meso linked porphyrins) are described by Osuka and Shimidzu (1997) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 36: 135–137, Yoshida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett. 55–56, Nakano et al. (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3023–3027, Ogawa et al. (1998) Chem. Commun. 337–338, Ogawa et al. (1999) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 38: 176–179, and Senge and Feng (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 4165–4168. Using the synthesis strategies exemplified here and in the Examples, one of ordinary skill in the art can routinely produce relatively complex data storage molecules for use in the devices of this invention.

Using the synthesis strategies exemplified here and in the Examples, one of ordinary skill in the art can routinely produce relatively complex data storage molecules for use in the devices of this invention.

C) Characterization of the Storage Media.

The storage media molecule(s), once prepared, can be characterized according to standard methods well known to those of skill in the art. The characterization of multiporphyrin nanostructures has been described (see, e.g., Strachan et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 11191–11201; Wagner et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 3996–3997; Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262; Seth et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11194–11207; Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116: 10578–10592). In a preferred embodiment, the electrochemical studies include cyclic and square-wave voltammetry to establish the redox potentials of the monomeric and multi-unit constituents of the storage media. Bulk electrochemical oxidations are performed on each of the storage materials to assess the hole-storage capabilities and the stability. Absorption and vibrational spectroscopic methods are used to assess the structural and electronic properties of both the neutral and oxidized materials. Electron paramagnetic resonance techniques are used to probe the hole-storage and hole-mobility characteristics of the oxidized storage molecules. Using the above-identified techniques, benchmarks for the expected performance characteristics of a storage molecule (e.g., oxidation potentials, redox reversibility, dynamic hole-mobility characteristics, etc.) can be ascertained.

D) Self-Assembly of the Storage Medium Molecules on Target Substrates.

In preferred embodiments, the storage molecules comprising the storage medium are designed to self-assemble on a substrate (e.g. a metal such as gold). The disk-like structure of the porphyrin macrocycles engenders self-assembly. Self-assembled monolayers of porphyrins on solid substrates are well known and have been extensively studied (see, e.g., Schick et al. (1989) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 111: 1344–1350, Mohwald et al. (1986) Thin Solid Films, 141: 261–275).

To exert control over the pattern of self-assembly, reactive sites (e.g. thiols) or linkers bearing active sites are incorporated into the storage molecules (nanostructures). The reactive sites bind to the target (e.g. gold electrode) surface giving an organized self-assembled structure. In the case of porphyrins with thiol linkers attached to the meso-positions, the porphyrins arrange in upright orientations. Non-covalent interactions between storage molecules are typically weak, particularly when bulky aryl groups are attached to each of the porphyrins.

VI. Writing to the Storage Device.

In preferred embodiments of the data storage devices of this invention, information is written to a particular memory location via application of a potential of the requisite value and temporal duration at the appropriate working and reference electrode(s) to achieve the desired digital value. The information can be erased via application of a potential of the opposite sign.

The writing process is illustrated with respect to storage of data in a static hole multi-unit storage molecule (SHMU storage molecule). One particular such molecular memory is illustrated by Formula IX and the writing process is summarized below in Table 4.

As shown in Table 4, each porphyrin has two redox processes, each of which is separated by at least 150 mV. To activate bit 001, a potential greater than 0.38 V (but less than 0.51 V) would be applied to the memory element to oxidize the magnesium porphyrin to its first oxidation state. The other porphyrins in the SHMU storage molecule could then be sequentially oxidized through the various redox states to provide the different bits. In preferred embodiments, this is accomplished through the application of very short (e.g., microsecond) pulses applied at a voltage sufficient to oxidize a porphyrin to the appropriate redox state. This process is summarized in FIG. 9. Thus, each redox state of the composite porphyrinic nanostructure can independently accessed to provide one bit of resolution. This can be accomplished via the electrochemical oxidation of the molecule in stepwise increments.

TABLE 4 Redox properties of model metalloporphyrins (MP). E⁰ Bit Redox process (V vs. Ag/AgCl) 000 All redox components in neutral state 001 MgPZnP ← → MgP⁺ZnP + 1 e⁻ 0.38 010 MgP⁺ZnP ← → MgP⁺ZnP⁺ + 1 e⁻ 0.51 011 MgP⁺ZnP⁺ ← → MgP²⁺ZnP⁺ + 1 e⁻ 0.71

Another example of the writing process is illustrated with respect to storage of data in porphyrin dimer XXIX (Formula XXIX). While each porphyrin subunit individually has a single non-neutral oxidation state, as shown in Table 5, the dimer has four non-zero oxidation states, each of which is separated by at least about 50 mV. To activate bit

TABLE 2 Mapping of bits onto oxidation potential in the porphyrin dimer of Formula I. Oxidation potential Bit (V) Redox-active unit parity 0 dimer neutral 00 0.49 dimer oxidation potential 1 01 0.66 dimer oxidation potential 2 10 0.95 dimer oxidation potential 3 00 1.03 dimer oxidation potential 4 001, a potential greater than 0.49 V (but less than 0.66 V) would be applied to the memory element to oxidize porphyrin 1 to its first oxidation state. A voltage greater than 0.66 V and less than 0.95 V would oxidize porphyrin 1 to its second oxidation state. A voltage greater than 0.95 V and less than 1.03 V would oxidize porphyrin 2 of the dimer to its first oxidation state and a voltage greater than 1.03 would oxidize porphyrin 2 of the dimer to its second oxidation state.

There is a great advantage to the small size of each memory element, which is essentially a modified electrode surface. When each memory element is reduced to sub-micron dimensions, the area of the surface allows the presence of only a few hundred data storage (e.g., porphyrin) molecules. Using Faraday's law, Q=nFN (where Q equals the total charge, n equals the number of electrons per molecule, F is 96,485 Coulombs/mole and N is the number of moles of electroactive species present), it can be determined that only a small charge (1.6×10⁻¹⁶ C; if passed in 1 μs, would result in a current of roughly 160 pA) must pass in order to change the electrochemical charge corresponding to each bit.

Additionally, the intrinsic limitation to the speed of most electrochemical experiments lies in the time required to charge the electrode to the appropriate potential (the charging current, which has a time dependence of exp(−t/RC)). Since the capacitance of the electrode is directly proportional to its area, miniaturization of each element of the system to submicron dimensions will greatly increase its speed. For example, a square gold electrode with 0.1 μm dimensions would have a capacitance of approximately 2×10⁻¹⁹F, leading to an RC time constant of only 2 picoseconds. For this reason, electrode charging currents should be insignificant in determining the ultimate performance of these devices.

The voltage used to write the data can be derived from any of a wide variety of sources. In a simple embodiment, the voltage can simply be the output from a power supply. However, in preferred embodiments, the voltage will be the output from some element of an electronic circuit. The voltage can be a signal, the representation of a logic state, the output from a gate, from an optical transducer, from a central processing unit, and the like. In short, virtually any voltage source that can be electrically coupled to the devices of this invention can be used to write data to the storage media therein.

VII. Reading from the Storage Device.

The storage device(s) of this invention can be read according to any of a wide variety of methods well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Essentially any method of detecting the oxidation state of a compound can be utilized in the methods of this invention. However, where the readout is destructive of the state of the memory cell(s) (e.g. in certain SHSU or SHMU memories), the read will preferably be followed by a refresh to reset the oxidation state of the storage cell.

In particularly preferred embodiments, the storage medium 102 of a storage cell 100 is set to neutral (e.g., 0 potential for the system, but which might not be at true zero voltage with respect to ground) using the working electrode. The oxidation state of the memory cell is then set by changing the potential at the reference electrode 103 (e.g. by setting the reference electrode negative to the desired voltage). The oxidation state of the storage cell is then measured (e.g. using sinusoidal voltammetry) via the working electrode 101. In this preferred format, the oxidation state is assayed by measuring current. By measuring current at the working electrode 101 and setting the state with the reference electrode 103, the measurement is not made at the place the potential is applied. This makes it far simpler to discriminate the oxidation state. If the potential were applied to the electrode through which the current was measured unnecessary noise would be introduced into the system.

A) Reading from Static Hole Storage Media

In the case of static hole storage media (e.g. SHSU and SHMU), the reading of information from a particular memory location is achieved extremely rapidly by sweeping a potential over the full range used to establish the dynamic range of the storage element. The fidelity of the measurement is dependent on how well the oxidation state of the individual storage element can be determined. Traditionally, electrochemical methods could only improve the signal to noise ratio by discriminating the faradaic signal from the background components in the time domain through application of pulse waveforms (i.e., differential pulse polarography, square wave voltammetry). These methods discriminate the faradaic current from the charging current in the time domain, since charging currents decay much more rapidly than the faradaic current (exp(−t/RC) vs t^(−1/2), respectively). However, the analytical faradaic current is not totally discriminated from the charging current, and most of the signal is discarded because sampling is done late in the pulse cycle.

More recently, sinusoidal voltammetry (SV) has been shown to have significant advantages over traditional waveforms in an electrochemical experiment (Singhal et al. (1997) Anal. Chem., 69: 1662–1668. For example, the background current resulting from cyclic voltammetry (consisting primarily of charging current) resembles a square wave, which contains significant intensity at both fundamental and odd harmonic frequencies. In contrast, the charging current resulting from sine wave excitation has only one frequency component centered at the fundamental, while the faradaic current is distributed over many frequencies as is illustrated in FIG. 10. This characteristic of sine wave excitation simplifies the electroanalytical measurement, since the signal from each oxidation state can be fine-tuned by “locking-in” on one of the higher frequency harmonics. Ultimately, the speed at which this can be performed is only limited by the kinetics of the redox reaction, which may ultimately lead to megahertz frequency operation.

Since most electrochemical methods rely on differences between the E_(1/2)'s (E_(1/2) is the potential at which half of the subject molecules are oxidized or reduced to a particular oxidation state) to differentiate compounds present in a sample and thereby to generate the selectivity for the measurement, this has severely limited the utility of electrochemical methods for the analysis of many complex matrices. In contrast, sinusoidal voltammetry can exploit the vast diversity in electron transfer rates observable at solid electrodes (k⁰, the rate of electron transfer) can vary over ten orders of magnitude at the same electrode surface) to obtain additional selectivity in the electrochemical measurement.

The composition of the frequency spectrum is extremely dependent on the rate of electron transfer. By adjusting the frequency of the sinusoidal (or other time-varying) excitation waveform, it becomes possible to use this kinetic information as well as the phase information to discriminate between two molecules which have very similar electrochemical properties. For example, this technique has been used for the detection of the direct oxidation of double-stranded DNA at copper electrodes (Singhal and Kuhr (1997) Anal. Chem., 69: 1662–1668). Where this is usually undetectable at conventional electrodes with standard voltammetric techniques, the use of sinusoidal voltammetry allowed the measurement of 1.0 nM double-stranded DNA. The concentration detection limit (S/N=3) for this size of dsDNA at the 6th harmonic is 3.2 pM. When coupled with a low-volume system, such as a monolayer of the adsorbed material, this allows detection of sub-zeptomole (10⁻²¹ mole) quantities of the storage medium molecule(s) on the surface.

This procedure may ultimately degrade the memory in the absence of a refresh mechanism. The level of degradation will depend on the total number of molecules ultimately used to ensure acceptable fault tolerance. To avoid degradation problems, however, a refresh cycle (a write cycle resetting the memory to the read value) can be inserted immediately after each read cycle is complete.

B) Reading from a Dynamic Hole Storage Medium

The same methods as described above for the static hole storage media can also be used to read dynamic hole storage media. However, the dynamic hole storage media were designed for and afford the unique possibility of interrogating a particular memory location via examination of the impedance of the working electrode. This reading scheme is possible because the impedance is modulated by the hole that hops between the two identical porphyrinic macrocycle units orthogonal to the surface of the electrode. The frequency of hole hopping is different depending on which pair of redox-active subunits is in an odd-hole state (and whether they are in a three-hole or one-hole state). The value of the bit can be read via determination of that frequency. This is most easily accomplished by an impedance measurement (preferably a function of frequency).

The “hole-hopping” state of the porphyrin will determine the conductive state of the molecular monolayer. Since the hole(s) rapidly hop between the two metalloporphyrins in the odd-hole oxidation states at rates which vary from the 100's of KHz to 100's of MHz, depending on the type of porphyrin, it is possible to find these states by the frequency at which the impedance of the nanostructure dips. In contrast, when each Mg or Zn porphyrin contains the same number of holes, no hopping can occur. The rate of hole hopping will determine the impedance characteristics of each state of each porphyrin nanostructure in the chip, and a decrease in the cell impedance would be expected at the hole-hopping frequency for each state of each porphyrin. While characterization of these hole-hopping states requires the collection of the entire frequency spectrum, the actual read cycle of the DHMU storage medium need only monitor a single frequency at a time. Impedance measurements using lock-in based systems apply only one frequency at a time to the electrode; any other frequencies are nearly totally suppressed by the lock-in amplifier. Thus, it is possible to monitor the frequency characteristic of hole-hopping level of each state and simultaneously determine the logic level of each element in the array using lock-in techniques.

This method of reading is extremely sensitive for molecular memories that utilize relatively small numbers of redox-active units (e.g. porphyrinic macrocycle nanostructures). The examination of the impedance can also be performed without compromising the integrity of a particular memory element.

For all I/O operations with the molecular memories of this invention, the use of molecular electronic components as on-chip buffering and decoding circuitry is desirable although not required. Hybrid systems can easily be produced incorporating the devices of this invention into conventional integrated circuit packages that contain all the circuitry required for encoding/decoding data, reading and writing to the storage element, monitoring fault tolerance and dynamically optimizing/selecting active storage elements to maximize fault tolerance.

C) Instrumentation for Reading/Writing Molecular Memories.

As indicated above, the molecular memory devices can be read by any of a wide variety of electrochemical technologies including amperometric methods (e.g. chronoamperometry), coulometric methods (e.g. chronocoulometry), voltammetric methods (e.g., linear sweep voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, pulse voltamnetries, sinusoidal voltammetry, etc.), any of a variety of impedance and/or capacitance measurements, and the like. Such readouts can be performed in the time and/or frequency domain.

1) Fast Potentiostat/Voltammetry System.

In one preferred embodiment, readout is accomplished using a fast potentiostat/voltammetry system. Such a system is capable of reading and writing the memory elements, on a microsecond time scale. Such a system can be modified from a prototypical system described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,650,061.

As illustrated in FIG. 11, a potentiostat with an RC time constant less than one microsecond is provided by using a fast voltage driver (e.g., video buffer amplifier). A preferred video buffer amplifier retains a usable bandwidth beyond 20 MHz and is used to rephase the voltage and current in the excitation signal to zero phase shift between voltage and current. This rephasing of the excitation signal immediately before the working electrode cancels out any phase shift which might be introduced by capacitance in the cable leading from the Arbitrary Waveform Synthesizer (AWS) function generator. An important part of the current monitor is a wide band op-amp. By using an op-amp with a very wide gain-bandwidth product, the amplifier gain can be set to 10,000 and still retain a bandwidth usable from DC to above 1 MHz. This allows the collection of impedance data from electrodes as small as a 1 μn disk over a frequency range from 15 kHz to 5 MHz.

2) A Megahertz Impedance Analysis System.

An ultrafast impedance analysis system capable of characterizing the SHMU storage medium on a microsecond time scale can be constructed using an Arbitrary Waveform Synthesizer (e.g., HP 8770A, AWS) and a 1-GHz Digitizing Oscilloscope (e.g., HP 54111D) controlled by a computer system (e.g. HP 9000 series 300 computer system, Hewlett-Packard, Palo Alto, Calif.). The impedance data sets can be collected with the digital scope with 8192 time domain points at 25 MHz. Thus, a full 8192 point data set can be acquired in a total of 328 μs. Both the excitation and the response waveforms are measured; the excitation waveform is measured prior to the start of the experiment so that the response acquisitions can be done during the course of the experiment without interruption. One preferred excitation signal consists of a waveform with an amplitude of 60 mV_((p−p)) which covers a frequency band from approximately 30 KHz to over 1 MHz. If five complete replicates of each excitation or response waveform are contained within the 8192 data points set captured by the capture device (e.g. oscilloscope), because no further ensemble averaging is needed, each full impedance spectra can be acquired in 328 μs. Therefore, the whole frequency band under study can be excited and monitored in a single acquisition. The FFT of the time domain data provides frequency-amplitude and frequency-phase characterization of the data equivalent to the data given by a lock-in based system.

VIII. Computer Systems Comprising Storage Device(s) According to this Invention.

The use of the storage devices of this invention in computer systems is contemplated. One such computer system is illustrated in FIG. 12. The computer comprises a signal source (e.g. I/O device or CPU) a storage device of this invention and appropriate circuitry (e.g. voltammetry circuitry) to read the state(s) of the storage device. In operation, voltages representing the bits to be stored are applied to the working electrodes of the storage device thereby setting the memory. When retrieval is necessary (e.g. for output, or further processing) the state(s) of the storage device is read by the I/O circuitry and the information is passed off to other elements (e.g. CPU) in the computer.

FIG. 12 illustrates the memory devices of this invention integrated into a standard computer architecture or computer system 200. The hardware of system 200 includes a processor (CPU) 205, a memory 206 (which can comprise molecular memory devices), a persistent storage 208 which does comprise molecular memory devices of this invention, and hardware for a graphical user interface (GUI) 220, coupled by a local bus or interface 210. The persistent memory 208 can include the elements shown in FIG. 11. System 200 can further include additional hardware components (not shown).

System 200 can be, for example, a personal computer or workstation. Processor 205 can be, for example, a microprocessor, such as the 80386, 80486 or Pentium(™) microprocessor, made by Intel Corp. (Santa Clara, Calif.). Memory 206 can include, for example, random-access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), virtual memory, molecular memory (FIG. 11) or any other working storage medium or media accessible by processor 205. Persistent storage 208 can include a hard disk, a floppy disk, an optical or magneto-optical disk, a molecular memory or any other persistent storage medium. GUI 220 facilitates communications between a user and system 200. Its hardware includes a visual display 221 and a selector device (mouse, keyboard, etc.) 222. Through visual display 221, system 200 can deliver graphical and textual output to the user. From selector device 222, system 200 can receive inputs indicating the user's selection of particular windows, menus, and menu items. Visual display 221 can include, for example, a cathode-ray tube (CRT) or flat-panel display screen, or a head-mounted display such as a virtual reality display. Selector device 222 can be, for example, a two-dimensional pointing device such as a mouse, a trackball, a track pad, a stylus, a joystick, or the like. Alternatively or additionally, selector device 222 can include a keyboard, such as an alphanumeric keyboard with function and cursor-control keys.

The software of system 200 includes an operating system 250 and an application program 260. The software of system 200 can further include additional application programs (not shown). Operating system 150 can be, for example, the Microsoft® Windows95® operating system for IBM PC and compatible computers having or emulating Intel 80386, 80486, or Pentium(™) processors. Alternatively, the operating system can be specialized for operation utilizing molecular memory elements. Application program 160 is any application compatible with the operating system and system 200 architecture. Persons of skill in the art will appreciate that a wide range of hardware and software configurations can support the system and method of the present invention in various specific embodiments.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are offered to illustrate, but not to limit the claimed invention.

Example 1 Thiol-Porphyrins for Attachment to Electroactive Surfaces as Molecular Memory Devices

I. Molecular Design

This example presents the design and synthesis of porphyrins that can be attached covalently, in defined geometries, to electroactive surfaces. For the present purposes, we consider only the surface of a gold electrode. Three design features we sought to obtain included the following: (1) The ability to attach porphyrins via a sulfide linkage to the gold electrode surface with the porphyrins oriented vertically or horizontally. (2) The ability to tune the porphyrin electrochemical oxidation potential through the use of electron-withdrawing or releasing substituents at the periphery of the porphyrin, or the use of different metals in metalloporphyrins. (3) The use of thiol protecting groups that would cleave spontaneously on the gold surface, thereby avoiding the potential practical problems of handling free thiols.

In order to achieve a vertical orientation of the porphyrin attached to the gold surface, we employed A₃B meso-substituted porphyrins where the B group bears the thiol for surface attachment. The remaining three A groups bear substituents for control of the electrochemical potential. In order to achieve a horizontal orientation of the porphyrin attached to the gold surface, we employed porphyrins possessing two or four —CH₂SH groups in the meta position of the meso-phenyl rings. The tuning of the electrochemical potential can be achieved in a straightforward manner in the A₃B-porphyrins, where the A group can range from electron-rich substituents such as mesityl to electron-deficient substituents such as the pentafluorophenyl group. With the horizontally-oriented porphyrins, the introduction of substituents to tune the potential must be done without interfering with the meta—CH₂SH groups. Accordingly, we have elected to investigate different metals with the horizontally-positioned porphyrins. The selection of the thiol protecting group poses extensive challenges. The protecting group of choice should be stable under diverse conditions, including the acidic and oxidative conditions of porphyrin formation as well as conditions for porphyrin metalation (generally involving mild Lewis acids, in some cases in the presence of bases). One objective is to be able to construct diarylethyne-linked multiporphyrin arrays, which require Pd-mediated coupling reactions. We sought thiol protecting groups that would meet these diverse criteria.

II. Results

Aldehydes.

Our initial synthetic strategy toward mono-thiol (A₃B) porphyrins for vertical orientation started from 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde which we hoped to convert to 4-mercaptobenzaldehyde dimethyl acetal (using the strategy of Young et al. (Young et al. (1984) Tetrahedron Lett., 25: 1753–1756)) and next to the thiol-protected dimethyl acetals. The first step involved conversion of the aldehyde group to its dimethyl acetal under standard conditions. The sulfide obtained was successfully converted to the sulfoxide in 95% yield but treatment of the sulfoxide with TFAA led to polymerization rather than the thiol (probably because of cleavage of acetal and intermolecular thioacetalization). We overcame this problem by making two improvements: (1) the dimethyl acetal was replaced by a more bulky acetal protecting group at an earlier stage of the synthesis, (2) milder conditions for the Pummerer rearrangement were employed (Sugihara et al. (1978) Synthesis, 881). Thus protection of the carbonyl group with neopentyl glycol (Rondestvedt (1961) J. Org. Chem., 26: 2247–2253) followed by oxidation of the resulting acetal (1) smoothly afforded sulfoxide 2 in 86% overall yield (Scheme 1, FIG. 14). Treatment of sulfoxide 2 with TFAA in the presence of 2,6-lutidine followed by hydrolysis of the resulting intermediate funished thiol 3. Compound 3 was transformed into the S-protected acetals 4, 5, 6, and 7 using ethyl isocyanoacetate (Ricci et al. (1977) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1: 1069–1073), 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (Vorozhtsov et al. (1958) Z. Obs. Chim., 28: 40–44, Engl. Transl. 40–44), 9-chloromethylanthracene (Kornblum and Scott (1974) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 96: 590–591), and pivaloyl chloride, respectively, in overall yields of 20–65% from the sulfoxide 2. The acetal group in 4, 5, 6 and 7 was selectively hydrolyzed prior to formation of the corresponding porphyrin.

Two other S-protected p-thiobenzaldehydes were obtained as shown in Scheme 2 (FIG. 15). The thiocyanato-benzaldehyde 8 was prepared according to a general procedure (Suzuki and Abe (1996) Synth. Commun., 26: 3413–3419) in 20% yield. All attempts to improve the yield by replacement of DMF with 1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone, increasing the temperature, or prolonging the reaction time were unsuccessful. S-Acetylthiobenzaldehyde 9 was prepared in a two-step one-flask procedure. Cleavage of the methyl group of 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde according to a general procedure (Tiecco et al. (1982) Synthesis, 478–480) followed by trapping of the resulting anion with acetyl chloride afforded the desired S-acetylthiobenzaldehyde 9 in 55% yield.

Our approach toward horizontally-oriented porphyrins required access to S-protected m-(HSCH₂)benzaldehydes. The commercially available m-(bromomethyl)benzonitrile was reduced with DiBA1-H to the corresponding m-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde (Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755–6790) (Scheme 2, FIG. 15). Substitution of the bromine with potassium thiocyanate gave the thiocyanato-benzaldehyde 10 as colorless crystals in 74% yield. By using the thiocyanate as protecting group, incorporation and protection of the sulfur unit could be achieved in one step.

Porphyrins.

The A₃B-porphyrins were prepared using a two-step, one-flask room temperature synthesis of meso-substituted porphyrins that is compatible with a variety of precursor aldehydes including the ortho-disubstituted benzaldehydes that yield facially-encumbered porphyrins (Lindsey and Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828–836, Lindsey, J. S. in Metalloporphyrins-Catalyzed Oxidations; Montanari, F., Casella, L., Eds.; Kluwer Academic Publishers: The Netherlands, 1994; pp 49–86, Lindsey et al. (1994) J. Org. Chem., 59: 579–587). A mixed-aldehyde condensation of mesitaldehyde, a thiol-protected aldehyde, and pyrrole afforded a mixture of porphyrins, from which the desired thiol protected A₃B-porphyrin was obtained by chromatography. The acetals 4–7 were hydrolyzed with trifluoroacetic acid and the resulting aldehydes 11–14 were used directly without purification in the respective porphyrin syntheses. Thus, aldehydes 9, 11, 12, 13 or 14 as well as commercially available 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde afforded thiol-protected A₃B-porphyrins 20, 15, 16, 17, 18 or 19, respectively, in ˜10% yield (Scheme 3, FIG. 16). The porphyrins obtained were metalated using Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O, affording Zn-20, Zn-15, Zn-16, Zn-17, Zn-18 or Zn-19.

Examination of the behavior of various thiol-protected zinc porphyrins revealed that the S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) and S-acetyl groups easily cleaved in situ and the resulting porphyrin product bound on the gold surface (vide infra). We decided to confirm this result by also cleaving the S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) group in porphyrin Zn-15 using basic conditions. Treatment of porphyrin Zn-15 with sodium methoxide followed by acidic workup gave mono-thiol porphyrin Zn-21, which was air-sensitive and proved very difficult to purify to homogeneity (the porphyrin disulfide was also present) (Scheme 4, FIG. 17). The same reaction performed with quenching by acetyl chloride afforded the S-acetyl porphyrin Zn-20. Both Zn-15 and Zn-20 were found to bind to the gold surface identically with that of the free thiol containing porphyrin Zn-21.

We attempted to insert magnesium into porphyrins 15 and 16 using MgI₂ and N,N-diisopropylethylamine in CH₂Cl₂ (Lindsey and Woodford (1995) Inorg. Chem. 34: 1063–1069). In both cases we obtained complex mixtures of porphyrins due to cleavage of the protecting groups. The resulting salts likely contain the thiolate anion complexed with the protonated diisopropylethylamine. All attempts at acidification caused demetalation of magnesium. Magnesium insertion occurred with 5,10,15-trimesityl-20-(4-thiocyanatophenyl)porphyrin under these conditions but the Mg-chelate could not be purified to homogeneity. The difficulty in purification may stem from lability of the thiocyanate group on alumina, as we observed that the thiocyanate group of 5,10,15-trimesityl-20-(4-thiocyanatophenyl)porphyrin is cleaved during chromatography on alumina. Finally we subjected the S-acetyl-derivatized porphyrin 20 to the same magnesium insertion conditions. Magnesium insertion occurred but with cleavage of the thiol protecting group, affording the free thiol Mg-21 in 32% yield (Scheme 5, FIG. 18).

The results of the gold-binding studies (vide infra) prompted us to use the S-carbamoyl benzaldehyde 11 in subsequent syntheses. Thus mixed aldehyde-pyrrole condensations of aldehyde 11 with 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzaldehyde, pentafluorobenzaldehyde, or n-hexanal yielded porphyrins 22, 23 or 24, respectively (Scheme 6, FIG. 19). Attempted conversion to the zinc chelate gave the thiol-protected porphyrin Zn-22, however the more forcing conditions required for metalation of the tris(pentafluorophenyl)porphyrin and tri-n-pentyl-substitutcd porphyrin resulted in cleavage of the S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) group, giving Zn-25 and Zn-26.

The design of porphyrins oriented in a horizontal manner can be achieved by the synthesis of porphyrins bearing a meta-(mercaptomethyl)phenyl group at each of the four meso-positions. We attempted to repeat the synthesis of the unprotected 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[m-(mercaptomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (Wen et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 7726–7733), but encountered solubility problems due to disulfide formation. Because of the promising results with other thiol protecting groups cleaved directly on the gold surface we decided to synthesize the corresponding thiol-protected porphyrin. As a protected sulfide entity we chose the thiocyanate group due to its high chemical stability.

Condensation of 10 with pyrrole at room temperature afforded the desired 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin 27 as a dark purple solid. Metalation with zinc acetate afforded the zinc-chelate Zn-27 as a purple solid in 79% yield (Scheme 7, FIG. 20). The thiocyanates were easily cleaved on the gold surface, affording a self-assembled porphyrin oriented parallel to the gold surface using all four thiol groups for binding (vide infra).

Driven by these positive results we decided to synthesize a porphyrin with only two ‘legs’ for attachment to the gold surface. Condensation of aldehyde 10 with 5-phenyldipyrromethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427–11440, Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391–1396) using BF₃.OEt₂ in acetonitrile to minimize scrambling (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 2864–2872) gave the desired trans-porphyrin 28 in 7% yield (accompanied by 10,15,20-triphenyl-5-[m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin in 2% yield due to scrambling) (Scheme 8, FIG. 21). Metalation of 28 with zinc acetate afforded the zinc porphyrin Zn-28 as a purple solid in 59% yield. Porphyrin Zn-28 also bound to the gold surface by in situ cleavage of the thiocyanate units.

To achieve horizontally-oriented porphyrins with different potentials we decided to metalate 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[m-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (29) with various metal acetates (Scheme 9, FIG. 22). 29 was synthesized by substitution of all four bromides in 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[m-(bromomethyl)phenyl)porphyrin (Wen et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 7726–7733, Karaman et al. (1992) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 114:4889–4898) with potassium thioacetate in 63% yield. Metalation of free base porphyrin 29 with zinc acetate gave the desired zinc porphyrin Zn-29 in quantitative yield as a purple solid. Using Co(OAc)₂.4H₂O afforded the corresponding cobalt chelate Co-29 as an orange-purple solid in quantitative yield.

Characterization.

The synthetic porphyrins are purple solids with a metallic reflection. The porphyrins are stable to air but slowly decompose in solution in the presence of light. The purity of all porphyrin compounds was routinely checked by TLC, ¹H NMR spectroscopy (with the exception of the paramagnetic Co-29), LD-MS and UV/VIS spectroscopy. Fluorescence emission and excitation spectroscopy was used to confirm the completeness of the different metalation procedures. FAB-MS and IR spectra were measured to support the structure of the porphyrins.

Generally the LD-MS spectrum of a porphyrin shows the cationic molecule ion peak M⁺ in high intensity with only little fragmentation (Srinivasan et al. (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 3: 283–291). But some porphyrins with delicate peripheral groups undergo characteristic and extensive fragmentation upon LD-MS analysis. Porphyrins with thiocyanate substituents show the loss of the cyano and the thiocyanato groups, with the latter exhibiting more intense peaks. If more than one thiocyanate group is present, fragmentation can occur for each of these groups. Porphyrins with S-acetyl groups show loss of both the acetyl (—COCH₃) and the thioacetate (—SCOCH₃) groups. Such fragmentation can generally occur for each thioacetate substituent. A further LD-MS feature observed with thioacetate-derivatized porphyrins involves the appearance of an (M+15)⁺ peak. Because this peak occurred in the LD-MS spectra of all porphyrins with thioacetate substituents, which were synthesized via different routes, and no other types of spectra show any evidence for the presence of another species, this cannot be an impurity but must be a photochemical artifact involving the transfer of a methyl group. In each case the (M+15)⁺ peak exhibited the same pattern of fragmentation as observed for the parent molecule ion (M)⁺. The intensity of the (M+15)⁺ peak is about 10% of that of the M⁺ peak.

Behavior on Gold.

We surveyed the behavior of the thiol-protected zinc chelates Zn-15, Zn-16, Zn-17, Zn-18, Zn-19 and Zn-20 on gold electrodes. The members of this set of zinc porphyrins each bears three mesityl groups and differ only in the nature of the thiol protecting group. These studies revealed that the S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) (Zn-15) and S-acetyl (Zn-20) groups were easily cleaved on the gold surface, whereas the S-(2,4-dinitrophenyl) (Zn-16), S-(9-anthrylmethyl) (Zn-17), S-pivaloyl (Zn-18) and S-methyl (Zn-19) protecting groups were not cleaved. When no cleavage occurred, the thiol-protected porphyrins were not bound to the gold surface. We found that Zn-15 (S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) protected), Zn-20 (S-acetyl protected), and Zn-21 (free thiol) bind to the gold surface identically. We also examined thiocyanatomethyl-derivatized porphyrins (Zn-27, Zn-28) on gold electrodes. We found that the thiocyanato protecting group cleaves in situ and the corresponding thiol-derivatized porphyrin binds on the gold surface. These results are in accord with and extend a previous report (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 9529–9534) that the S-acetyl group of various thiol-substituted arenes (not porphyrins) is cleaved on the gold surface. Of the three thiol protecting groups that we identified to undergo cleavage in situ on gold electrodes, we also found in survey experiments that only the S-acetyl group is compatible with Pd-coupling reactions for the preparation of diarylethyne-linked multiporphyrin arrays.

Porphyrins Zn-15, Zn-20, Zn-21, Zn-22, Zn-25, Zn-26, Zn-27, Zn-28, and Mg-21 have been attached to a gold electrode. Porphyrins Zn-15, Zn-20, Zn-21, Zn-22, Zn-25, Zn-26, and Mg-21 bear one thiol or protected thiol and bind to the gold surface in a vertical orientation. Porphyrins Zn-27 and Zn-28 bind to the surface in a horizontal orientation with four and two sites of attachment, respectively. The set of zinc porphyrins with three mesityl (Zn-15, Zn-20, Zn-21), n-pentyl (Zn-26), 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl (Zn-22), or pentafluorophenyl (Zn-25) groups, as well as the magnesium porphyrin with three mesityl groups (Mg-21), demonstrate the storage of data (upon oxidation) at different electrochemical potentials.

III. Experimental.

General.

All chemicals were obtained commercially and used as received unless otherwise noted. Reagent grade solvents (CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃, hexanes) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher. Pyrrole was distilled from CaH₂. ¹H NMR spectra (300 MHz, General Electric GN 300NB), absorption spectra (HP 8453, Cary 3), and emission spectra (Spex FluoroMax) were collected routinely. All reported NMR results were obtained at 300 MHz in CDCl₃. UV-Vis absorption spectra were recorded in CH₂Cl₂ or toluene. Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200–400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80–200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desorption (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix (Fenyo et al. (1997) J Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1: 93–99) using a Bruker Proflex II mass spectrometer, fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS) using a JEOL HX110HF mass spectrometer (ion source 40° C., CsKI or polyethylene glycol standards, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the porphyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS).

2-[(4-Methylthio)phenyl]-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (1)

Samples of 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde (20.0 mL, 150 mmol), neopentyl glycol (16.0 g, 155 mmol), toluene (250 mL) and p-toluenesulfonic acid (190 mg, 1.00 mmol) were placed in a 500 mL flask fitted with a Dean-Stark trap and a reflux condenser. The mixture was refluxed cautiously until a sudden exotherm ceased, then for an additional hour (total ˜1.5 h). The cooled mixture was washed with sodium bicarbonate solution and with water. After drying with Na₂SO₄ and evaporation, white crystals crystallized from hexanes (32.2 g, 89.4%). mp 74–75° C.; ¹H NMR (CDCl₃)δ 0.83 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.33 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 2.50 (s, 3H, CH₃S), 3.67 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.2 Hz), 3.79 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.2 Hz), 5.25 (s, 1H, acetal), 7.30, (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 16.5, 22.6, 23.8, 30.9, 78.3, 102.1, 127.1, 127.4, 136.2, 140.0; EI-MS m/z 238.1028 (M)⁺ (C₁₃H₁₈O₂S requires 238.1028); Anal. Calcd. for C₁₃H₁₈O₂S: C, 65.51; H, 7.61; S, 13.45; Found: C, 65.62; H, 7.70; S, 13.55.

2-[(4-Methylsulfoxy)phenyl]-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (2)

A solution of acetal 1 (19 g, 80 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (150 mL) was cooled to −20° C. and stirred vigorously. Then a solution of MCPBA (31 g of 50–55% water suspension, 90 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL) was added dropwise over 1 h. The mixture was stirred at 0° C. for an additional 1 h. Then Ca(OH)₂ (11 g, 0.15 mmol) and Na₂SO₄ (20 g) were added and stirring was continued for 1 h. After filtration and evaporation, the warm colorless oil was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL) and hexanes was added, affording white crystals that were isolated by filtration (14.6 g). The filtrate was evaporated and the residual oil was recrystallized, affording a second crop of white crystals. The total yield was 19.6 g (97%). mp 116–117° C.; ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 0.77 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.24 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 2.65 (s, 3H, CH₃SO), 3.62 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=11.1 Hz), 3.74 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.8 Hz), 5.40 (s, 1H, acetal), 7.6–7.7 (m, 4H, ArH); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 22.5, 23.7, 30.9, 44.7, 78.3, 101.3, 124.0, 128.0, 142.2, 146.7; EI-MS obsd 254.0975, calcd exact mass 254.0977 (C₁₃H₁₈O₃S); Anal. Calcd. for C₁₃H₁₈O₃S: C, 61.39; H, 7.13; S, 12.61; Found: C, 61.29; H, 7.03; S, 12.70.

2-(4-Mercaptophenyl)-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (3)

Sulfoxide 2 (7.62 g, 30.0 mmol) was dissolved in CH₃CN (120 mL). 2,6-Lutidine (10.8 mL, 93.0 mmol) was added and the mixture was cooled to −20° C. To the resulting suspension TFAA (12.7 mL, 90.0 mmol) was added dropwise maintaining the temperature below 0° C. The sulfoxide disappeared and the mixture turned a lemon yellow. When the addition was complete, the mixture was stirred at ˜0° C. for 1 h. The mixture was then allowed to warm to room temperature. All volatile materials were evaporated at 30° C. Next a precooled mixture of NEt₃ (50 mL) and MeOH (50 mL) was added. After 30 min at room temperature all volatile materials were evaporated under reduced pressure at low temperature. The residual yellow oil was dissolved in ether (70 mL) and extracted with sat. NH₄Cl (250 mL). The layers were separated, the organic layer was dried (Na₂SO₄) and concentrated to dryness giving a yellow-orange oil (6.61 g, 98% yield of crude material) of which ˜70% was the desired compound. The crude thiol was pure enough for the next step. A small sample was oxidized to the respective disulfide and characterized. mp 134–136° C.; ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 0.80 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.28 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 3.63 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.2 Hz), 3.76 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=11.2 Hz), 5.36 (s, 1H, acetal), 7.43, 7.49 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 16.5, 22.6, 23.7, 30.9, 78.3, 101.8, 127.6, 128.1, 138.2, 138.4; FAB-MS obsd 446.1574, calcd exact mass 446.1586 (C₂₄H₃₀O₄S₂); Anal. Calcd. for C₂₄H₃₀O₄S₂: C, 64.54; H, 6.77; S, 14.36; Found: C, 64.52; H, 6.70; S, 14.44.

2-[(4-S—(N-Ethylcarbam yl)thiophenyl]-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (4)

To the crude thiol 3 (6.60 g, 29.5 mmol) was added ethyl isocyanoacetate (2.33 mL, 29.5 mmol) followed by phenylthiotrimethylsilane (0.568 mL, 3.00 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred for 3 h at room temperature. During this time the mixture gradually solidified to a pale yellow solid. Then n-pentane (5 mL) was added and the suspension was filtered and washed thoroughly with n-pentane. The yellowish crystals were dissolved in hot toluene and hexanes was added. After standing for a few hours, off-white crystals were collected (4.01 g, yield 45.2% from sulfoxide 2). mp 117–118° C.; ¹HNMR (CDCl₃) δ 0.81.(s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.08 (t, 3H, CH ₃—CH₂, J=7.2 Hz), 1.29 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 3.2–3.3 (m, 2H, CH₂N), 3.67 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.8 Hz), 3.78 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=11.1 Hz), 5.42 (s, 1H, acetal), 5.57 (bs, 1H, NH), 7.58 (bs, 4H, ArH); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 15.5, 22.6, 23.7, 30.9, 37.2, 78.3, 101.5, 128.1, 130.0, 136.0, 140.7, 166.4; EI-MS obsd 295.1235, calcd exact mass 295.1242 (C₁₅H₂₁NO₃S); Anal. Calcd. for C₁₅H₂₁NO₃S: C, 60.99; H, 7.17; N, 4.74; S, 10.86; Found: C, 61.16; H, 7.05; N, 4.70; S, 11.02.

2-[(4-S-(2,4-Dinitrophenyl)thiophenyl]-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (5)

Crude thiol 3 (1.00 g, 4.46 mmol) was mixed with 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (830 mg, 4.46 mmol). After heating to 35° C., cesium fluoride (1.35 g, 8.92 mmol) was added. The yellow mixture was stirred and heated at 45° C. for 1 h. Next toluene (10 mL) was added and the hot suspension was filtered to remove insoluble materials. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness, giving an orange oil. The crude product was chromatographed on silica (CH₂Cl₂/hexaness 1:2) affording a yellow oil, which finally was crystallized from hot ethanol, affording yellow crystals (1.2 g, 63% from sulfoxide 2). mp 132–133° C.; ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 0.77 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.24 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 3.63 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.8 Hz), 3.74 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=11.1 Hz), 5.40 (s, 1H, acetal), 6.93 (d, 1H, ArH-5, J=8.7 Hz), 7.57 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.00 (dd, 1H, ArH-6, J=8.7 Hz, J=2.1 Hz), 8.99 (d, 1H, ArH-3, J=2.1 Hz); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 22.4,23.6, 30.9,78.4, 101.2, 122.0, 127.5, 129.2, 129,6, 130.0, 136.4, 142.2, 144.9, 148.8; EI-MS obsd 390.0873, calcd exact mass 390.0886 (C₁₈H₁₈N₂O₆S); Anal. Calcd. for C₁₈H₁₈N₂O₆S: C, 55.38; H, 4.65; N, 7.18; S, 8.21; Found: C, 55.50; H, 4.64; N, 7.12; S, 8.30.

2-[(4-S-(9-Anthrylmethyl)thiophenyl]-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (6)

Crude thiol 3 (1.15 g, 50.0 mmol) was dissolved in methanol (10 mL). To this solution was added a freshly prepared solution of sodium methoxide [from Na (117 mg, 50.0 mmol) and MeOH (50 mL)]. After 15 min the mixture was evaporated to dryness and the orange solid was dried under vacuum. Then the solid was dissolved in anhydrous DMF (15 mL) at room temperature and a solution of 9-chloromethylanthracene (1.13 g, 50.0 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 72 h. The DMF was evaporated under reduced pressure, and the resulting yellow oil was chromatographed on alumina (hexanes/CH₂Cl₂). The resulting yellow crystals were recrystallized from CH₂Cl₂/hexanes to afford 1.17 g of the desired product (56.4%). mp 158–159° C.; ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 0.84 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.37 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 3.69 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.8 Hz), 3.84 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.8 Hz), 5.01 (s, 2H, CH₂S), 5.44 (s, 1H, acetal), 7.4–7.6 (m, 8H, anthracene), 8.01, 8.26 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.42 (s, 1H, anthracene); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 22.6, 23.8, 30.9, 32.7, 78.4, 102.0, 124.8, 125.8, 127.1, 127.6, 128.1, 128.5, 129.7, 129.9, 130.8, 132,2, 137.5, 139.3; FAB-MS obsd 414.1653, calcd exact mass 414.1654 (C₂₇H₂₆O₂S); Anal. Calcd. for C₂₇H₂₆O₂S: C, 78.22; H, 6.32; S, 7.73; Found: C, 78.05; H, 6.24; S, 7.63.

2-[(4-S-Pivaloylthiophenyl]-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (7)

Crude thiol 3 (2.24 g, 10.0 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (10 mL) and methanol (10 mL) was added. To this solution was added a freshly prepared solution of sodium methoxide [from Na (230 mg, 10.0 mmol) and MeOH (5 mL)]. After 30 min pivaloyl chloride (1.40 mL, 11.4 mmol) was added and the mixture was stirred for an additional 3 h at room temperature. After evaporation of all volatile components, the residual oil was chromatographed on silica, affording a mixture of less polar compounds. The yellowish oil was further chromatographed using centrifugal preparative chromatography to afford a mixture of the title compound and the corresponding disulfide. The mixture was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ and MeOH was added. Next CH₂Cl₂ was flushed out with argon. The crystals were filtered and dissolved in hot methanol and the mixture was carefully cooled. After 30 min crystals of the title compound were collected (502 mg, 16.0%). mp 115–116° C.; ¹HNMR(CDCl₃) δ 0.80(s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.28 (s, 3H, CH₃C), 1.32 (s, 9H, C(CH₃)₃), 3.64 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.2 Hz), 3.77 (AB/2, 2H, CH₂O, J=10.2 Hz), 5.41 (s, 1H, acetal), 7.40, 7.55 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 22.6, 23.7, 28.1, 30.9, 47.6, 78.3, 101.6, 127.5, 129.3, 135.4, 140.1; Anal. Calcd. for C₁₇H₂₄O₃S: C, 66.20; H, 7.84; S, 10.40; Found: C, 66.22; H, 7.92; S, 10.60.

4-Thiocyanatobenzaldehyde (8)

Under an argon atmosphere, a mixture of 4-iodobenzaldehyde (232 mg, 1.00 mmol), KSCN (95.0 mg, 1.00 mmol), CuSCN (120 mg, 1.00 mmol) and DMF (7.5 mL) was heated with stirring in an oil bath maintained at 140° C. for 12 h. After cooling, the mixture was diluted with toluene and water, and then filtered through a Celite bed. The aqueous phase was extracted with toluene, the organic fractions were combined and washed with water, dried and concentrated. The resulting dark oil was chromatographed on silica gel using centrifugal preparative chromatography to obtain off-white crystals (33 mg, 20%). mp 82–83° C.; ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 7.63, 7.92 (AA′BB′, 2H, ArH), 10.01 (s, 1H, CHO); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 109.4, 129.3, 131.6, 132.9, 191.3; EI-MS obsd 163.0092, calcd exact mass 163.0092 (C₈H₅NOS); Anal. Calcd. for C₈H₅NOS: C, 58.88; H, 3.09; N, 8.58; S, 19.65; Found: C, 58.85; H, 2.99; N, 8.61; S, 19.68.

4-S-Acetylthiobenzaldehyde (9)

4-Methylthiobenzaldehyde (4.45 mL, 0.033 mol) and sodium thiomethoxide (10 g, 0.13 mol) were suspended in HMPA (100 mL) and the reaction mixture was heating with stirring at 100° C. for 18 h. The resulting brown suspension was cooled and acetyl chloride (10 mL) was added. After 2 h the resulting suspension was poured into water and diethyl ether was added. The ethereal layer was extracted with water three times, dried and evaporated. Next chromatography was performed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1). A yellow oil was collected containing the title compound with some impurities (3.33 g, crude yield 55.5%). This oil was recrystallized from ethanol giving off-white crystals (1.05 g, 18.3%). mp 44–45° C. (lit. 46° C., Zhdanov et al. (1970) Zh. Organ. Khim., 6: 554–559, Engl. Transl. (1970), 6: 551–555); ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 2.44 (s, 3H, COCH3), 7.56 (AA′BB′, 2H, ArH), 7.87 (AA′BB′, 2H, ArH), 10.00 (s, 1H, CHO); ¹³C NMR (CDCl₃) δ 31.2, 130.6, 135.2, 136.1, 137.1, 192.1, 192.9; Anal. Calcd. for C₉H₈O₂S: C, 59.98; H, 4.47; S, 17.79; Found: C, 59.58; H, 4.52; S, 17.78.

m-(Thiocyanatomethyl)benzaldehyde (10)

To a solution of 300 mg of m-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde (Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755–6790) (1.5 mmol) in 5 mL of methanol was added a solution of 321 mg of potassium thiocyanate (3.3 mmol) in 4 mL of methanol under stirring at ambient temperature. After a few minutes a precipitate formed. The reaction was monitored by TLC and stopped by adding 20 mL of H₂O when no starting material was detectable. 30 mL of ether was added and the phases were separated. The aqueous phase was washed twice with 20 mL of ether and the combined organic phases were dried (Na₂SO₄). Column chromatography over flash silica gel with ether/hexanes (1:2) gave 198 mg (1.1 mmol, 74% yield) of a slightly yellow oil which solidified upon standing at 0° C. Recrystallization (ether/hexanes) gave colorless crystals (mp 39° C.). IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3060 cm⁻¹ (m, arom. CH), 2996 (m, CH), 2832 (s, CH), 2751 (m, CH), 2149 (s, CN), 1695 (s, C═O), 1603 (s, arom. C═C), 1450 (m, arom. C═C), 1424 (m), 1394 (w), 1294 (w), 1145 (s), 1084 (w), 1006 (w), 960 (w), 908 (w), 881 (w), 803 (s), 754 (w), 696 (s), 652 (s); ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=4.22 (s, 2H, CH₂), 7.55–7.69 (m, 2H, ArH), 7.86–7.93 (m, ArH), 10.04 (s, 1H, CHO); ¹³C NMR (75.6 MHz, CDCl₃, APT): δ=32.7 (+, CH₂), 111.4 (+, CN), 129.6 (−, CH), 129.8 (−, CH), 130.1 (−, CH), 134.6 (−, CH), 135.7 (+, C_(q)), 136.8 (+, C_(q)), 191.4 (−, CHO); GC-MS (EI) obsd 177 [M⁺], 149 [M⁺-CO], 120, 119 [M⁺-SCN], 91 [M⁺-SCN—CO], 90, 89, 77 [C₆H₅ ⁺], 65, 63; Anal. Calcd for C₉H₇NOS, C, 60.99; H, 3.98; N, 7.90; S, 18.09. Found: C, 60.75; H, 4.05; N, 7.86; S, 18.19.

General Procedure for Synthesis of Porphyrins 15–18, 19–20 and 22–24

Acetal (4, 5, 6 or 7) (0.730 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (1 mL) and trifluoroacetic acid (2 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. After evaporation of the reaction mixture to dryness, the residue was redissolved in CHCl₃ (40 mL). Alternatively, aldehyde 9 or 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde (0.730 mmol) was added to CHCl₃ (40 mL). Next samples of the other aldehyde (2.20 mmol), pyrrole (0.200 mL, 2.92 mmol) and BF₃OEt₂ (0.090 mL, 0.71 mmol) were added. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 90 min. Then DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was gently refluxed for 1 h. After cooling, the reaction mixture was passed over a short silica column (CH₂Cl₂) affording porphyrins usually free from dark pigments and quinone species. Further purification details are described for each case as follows.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (15)

The mixture of porphyrins was loaded onto a silica column (4×30 cm, toluene). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 72 mg (12%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.47 (s, 2H, NHpyrrole), 1.32 (t, 3H, CH ₃—CH₂, J=7.2 Hz), 1.94 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.69 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 3.4–3.6 (m, 2H, CH₂N), 5.65 (bs, 1H, NH), 7.35 (s, 6H, ArH), 8.00, 8.33 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.72 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.78 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz), 8.87 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 844.1, obsd 844.6 [M⁺], 773.1 [M⁺-CONHEt]; FAB-MS obsd 843.4019, calcd exact mass 843.3971 (C₅₆H₅₃N₅OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 419, 515, 548, 591 mm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (16)

The mixture of porphyrins was purified by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, toluene/hexanes, 1:2). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 70 mg (10%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.44 (s, 2H, NHpyrrole), 1.95 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.71 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 7.30 (d, 1H, ArH, J=8.1 Hz), 7.37 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.60 (d, 1H, ArH, J=8.7 Hz), 8.00, 8.49 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.75 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.8–9.0 (m, 4H, β-pyrrole), 9.30 (d, 1H, ArH, J=2.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 938.4, obsd 938.0; FAB-MS obsd 938.3632, calcd exact mass 938.3614 (C₅₉H₅₀N₆O₄S); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 419, 515, 549, 591, 646 nm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(9-anthrylmethyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (17)

The mixture was chromatographed on an alumina column (toluene/hexanes, 1:4). The resulting mixture of porphyrins was purified by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, toluene/hexanes, 1:3). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 28 mg (4.0%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.51 (s, 2H, NHpyrrole), 1.90 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.66 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 5.43(s, 2H, CH₂S), 7.1–7.8 (m, 5H, anthracene), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.79, 8.52 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.0–8.2 (m, 4H, anthracene), 8.68 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.75 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.5 Hz), 8.80 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.5 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 962.5, obsd 964.0, 787.4 [M⁺-C₁₄H₈], 773.1 [M⁺-C₁₅H₁₀]; FAB-MS obsd 962.4368, calcd exact mass 962.4382 (C₆₈H₅₈N₄S); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 420, 515, 549, 593, 648 nm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-pivaloyl-thiophenyl]porphyrin (18)

The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:1). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 68 mg (11%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.49 (s, 2H, NH), 1.52 (s, 9H, C(CH₃)₃), 1.92 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.68 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 7.35 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.83, 8.30 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.75 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.4 Hz), 8.88 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.4 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 856.4, obsd 858.6, 831.5 [M⁺-C₂H₆], 774.2 [M⁺-COC(CH₃)₃]; FAB-MS obsd 856.4186, calcd exact mass 856.4175 (C₅₈H₅₆N₄OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 419, 515, 548, 591, 646 nm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-methylthiophenyl]porphyrin (19)

The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:1). The resulting mixture was next chromatographed on silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:4). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 57 mg (10%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.49 (s, 2H, NH), 1.92 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.68 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 2.79 (s, 3H, SCH₃), 7.33 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.67, 8.18 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.74 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz), 8.87 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 786.4, obsd 786.9; FAB-MS obsd 786.3790, calcd exact mass 786.3756 (C₅₄H₅₀N₄S); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 420, 515, 550, 592, 648 nm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-acetylthiophenyl]porphyrin (20)

The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes 1:1, then toluene). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 62 mg (10.5%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.46 (s, 2H, NH), 1.94 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.66 (s, 3H, COCH₃), 2.70 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 7.35 (s, 6H, ArH, 7.88, 8.35 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.73 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.79 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz), 8.89 (d, 2H, βpyrrole, J=4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 814.4, obsd 815.7, 813.9 [M⁺+15]; 787.7 [M⁺-CH₃CO+15], 773.7 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 814.3694, calcd exact mass 814.3705 (C₅₅H₅₀N₄OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 419, 515, 548, 591, 647 nm.

5,10,15-Tris(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)-20-[4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (22)

Purification was performed by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/MeOH, 98:2). The title compound was obtained as a ˜1:1 mixture with 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)porphyrin. The presence of the title compound was confirmed by mass spectrometry (LD-MS C₅₆H₅₃N₅O₁₀S calcd av mass 987.4, obsd 988.6). This mixture was not purified further but was used in the metalation reaction to prepare Zn-22.

5,10,15-Tris(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenyl)-20-[4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyl]-porphyrin (23)

The mixture of porphyrins was chromatographed on a silica column (4×30 cm, hexanes/CH₂Cl₂, 2:1). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 72 mg (10%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.74 (s, 2H, NHpyrrole), 1.32 (t, 3H, CH ₃—CH₂, J=7.2 Hz), 3.5–3.6 (m, 2H, CH₂N), 5.67 (bs, 1H, NH), 8.00, 8.32 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.94 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz), 9.02 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 9.09 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 987.1, obsd 989.9, 918.7 [M⁺-CONHEt]; FAB-MS obsd 987.1136, calcd exact mass 987.1149 (C₄₇H₂₀F₁₅N₅OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 415, 509, 540, 584, 638 nm.

5,10,15-Tri-n-pentyl-20-[4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (24)

The free base was purified by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica/CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 5:1) followed by column chromatography (silica/CH₂Cl₂/toluene, 4:1). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 9 mg (4%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ−2.62 (s, 2H, NH), 1.00–1.10 (m, 9H, CH ₃—CH₂), 1.30–1.70 (m, 9H, CH₂ aliphatic+CH ₃—CH₂—N), 1.75–1.90 (m, 6H, CH₂), 2.45–2.70 (m, 6H, CH₂), 3.50–3.62 (m, 4H, N—CH₂), 4.90–5.10 (m, 6H, CH₂-porphyrin), 5.63 (bt, 1H, NH, J=5.1 Hz), 7.98, 8.26 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.85 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz), 9.43 (d, 2H, βpyrrole, J=5.1 Hz); 9.52–9.62 (m, 4H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 699.4, obsd 700.7; FAB-MS obsd 699.3996, calcd exact mass 699.3971 (C₄₄H₅₃N₅OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 419, 519, 554, 598, 656 nm.

General Procedure for Zinc Insertion.

Porphyrin (0.040 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (15 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in methanol (15 mL) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. After metalation was complete (TLC, fluorescence excitation spectroscopy), the reaction mixture was washed with water and 10% NaHCO₃, dried (Na₂SO₄), filtered and rotary evaporated to a purple solid. Purification was achieved by chromatography on silica.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-15)

Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂) afforded 29 mg (75%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.30 (t, 3H, CH ₃—CH₂, J=7.5 Hz), 1.87 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.66 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 3.4–3.6 (m, 2H, CH₂N), 5.61 (bs, 1H, NH), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.93, 8.30 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.74 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.80 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz), 8.88 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 905.3, obsd 906.7, 835.7 [M⁺-CONHEt]; FAB-MS obsd 905.3098, calcd exact mass 905.3106 (C₅₆H₅₁N₅OSZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 421, 549 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-16)

Column chromatography (silica, toluene/hexanes) afforded 34 mg (85%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.87 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.64 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 7.26 (d, 1H, ArH, J=9.0 Hz), 7.29 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.54 (d, 1H, ArH, J=9.0 Hz), 7.99, 8.44 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.75 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.86 (AB, 4H, β-pyrrole, J=4.5 Hz), 9.23 (d, 1H, ArH, J=3.0 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 1000.3, obsd 1000.3; FAB-MS obsd 1000.2726, calcd exact mass 1000.2749 (C₅₉H₄₈N₆O₄SZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 422, 550 mm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-(9-anthrylmethyl)thiophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-17)

The product was purified by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, hexanes/CH₂Cl₂) 31 mg (74%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.85 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 1.88 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 2.65 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 5.36 (s, 2H, CH₂S), 7.1–8.5 (m, 19H, anthracene+ArH), 8.72 (s, 2H, β-pyrrole), 8.73 (s, 2H, β-pyrrole), 8.8–9.0 (m, 4H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 1024.4, obsd 1027.3, 834.9 [M⁺-C₁₅H₁₀]; FAB-MS obsd 1024.3529, calcd exact mass 1024.3517 (C₆₈H₅₆N₄SZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 421, 550 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-pivaloylthiopheny]porphyrin (Zn-18)

The product was purified on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:1), affording 31 mg (85%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.50 (s, 9H, C(CH₃)₃), 1.87 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.65 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.79, 8.29 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.74 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.79 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz), 8.91 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 918.3, obsd 919.5, 891.4 [M⁺-C₂H₆], 835.3 [M⁺-COC(CH₃)₃]; FAB-MS obsd 918.3332, calcd exact mass 918.3310 (C₅₈H₅₄N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 422, 549 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-methylthiophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-19)

The mixture was chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:1). The resulting mixture was next chromatographed on a silica column (toluene/hexanes, 1:4). The title porphyrin comprised the second purple band, affording 31 mg (90%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.84 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.63 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 2.74 (s, 3H, SCH₃), 7.26 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.59, 8.13 (AA′BB′, 2H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.75 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz), 8.87 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 848.3, obsd 851.5; FAB-MS obsd 848.2913, calcd exact mass 848.2891 (C₅₄H₄₈N₄SZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 421, 550 nmn.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-S-acetylthiophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-20)

Method 1.

(From 20 by general zinc insertion procedure). Purification by chromatography (silica, toluene/CH₂Cl₂). Yield 82%.

Method 2.

Zn(II)-porphyrin Zn-15 (9.0 mg, 0.010 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL) and the solution was carefully flushed with argon. Next a solution of sodium methoxide [freshly prepared from sodium (23 mg, 1.0 mmol) and MeOH (10 mL) under argon] was added. The reaction mixture was stirred under argon at room temperature for 1 h. Next acetyl chloride (1 mmol, 0.7 mL) was added and the mixture was evaporated to dryness. The mixture of porphyrins was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ and chromatographed (silica, hexanes/CH₂Cl₂) affording 6.3 mg (72%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.85 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.63 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 2.61 (s, 3H, CH₃CO), 7.28 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.46, 8.07 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.70 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.74 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz), 8.83 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 876.3, obsd 874.6; FAB-MS obsd 878.2983, calcd exact mass 878.2997 (C₅₅H₅₀N₄OSZn).

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-mercaptophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-21)

A sample of Zn-15 (9.0 mg, 0.010 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL) and the solution was carefully flushed with argon. Next a solution of sodium methoxide [freshly prepared from sodium (23 mg, 1 mmol) and MeOH (10 mL) and also flushed with argon] was added. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1 h. Next HCl (0.2 mL, 5 M soln.) was added and the mixture was evaporated to dryness. The mixture of porphyrins was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ and chromatographed (silica, hexanes/CH₂Cl₂) affording 4.3 mg (51%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.89 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.66 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 7.31 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.64, 8.22 (AA′BB′, 2H, ArH), 8.76 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 8.8–9.0 (m, 4H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 834.3, obsd 834.0; FAB-MS obsd 834.2071, calcd exact mass 834.2735 (C₅₃H₄₆N₄SZn).

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Tris(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)-20-14-S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl)thiophenyl]-porphyrin (Zn-22)

30.0 mg of a mixture of the desired free base A₃B-porphyrin and the corresponding A₄-porphyrin was metalated according to the general procedure. The desired chelate was purified by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica/CH₂Cl₂/MeOH, 99:1), affording 10.0 mg (1.3% from acetal 5). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.27 (t, 3H, CH ₃—CH₂, J=7.2 Hz), 3.4–3.6 (m, 2H, CH₂N), 3.49 (s, 18H, OCH₃), 4.09 (s, 9H, OCH₃), 5.57 (bt, 1H, NH, J=5.1 Hz), 6.57 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.89, 8.26 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.81 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.5 Hz), 8.86 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.5 Hz), 8.84 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 1049.3, obsd 1052.7, 981.5 [M⁺-CONHEt]; FAB-MS obsd 1049.2666, calcd exact mass 1049.2648 (C₅₆H₅₁N₅O₁₀SZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 423, 549 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Tris(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorophenyl)-20-[4-mercaptophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-25)

Refluxing a mixture of porphyrin 25 and Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O for 8 h followed by purification on silica (CH₂Cl₂) afforded 25 mg (63% yield). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 3.79 (s, 1H, SH), 7.67, 8.09 (AA′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.93 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz), 9.00 (s, 4H, β-pyrrole), 9.09 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=4.2 Hz); LD-MS calcd av mass 978.0, obsd 975.4; FAB-MS obsd 977.9925, calcd exact mass 977.9913 (C₄₄H₁₃F₁₅N₄SZn). λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 416, 545 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Tri-n-pentyl-20-[4-mercaptophenyl]porphyrin (Zn-26)

The product was purified by column chromatography (silica/CH₂Cl₂) followed by preparative centrifugal TLC (silica, hexanes/CH₂Cl₂, 1:9), affording 12 mg (44%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 0.80–1.40 (m, 12H, CH ₃—CH₂+CH ₃—CH₂—N), 1.50–1.70 (m, 6H, CH₂ aliphatic), 1.75–1.95 (m, 6H, CH₂), 2.40–2.60 (m, 6H, CH₂), 4.70–4.90 (m, 6H, CH₂-porphyrin), 8.17, 8.28 (AB′BB′, 4H, ArH), 8.95 (d, 2H, β-pyrrole, J=5.1 Hz), 9.35–9.48 (d, 6H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 690.3, obsd 690.4, 633.1 [M⁺-C₄H₉]; FAB-MS obsd 690.2706, calcd exact mass 690.2735 (C₄₁H₄₆N₄SZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 419, 554 nm.

Mg(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-mercaptophenyl]porphyrin (Mg-21)

Porphyrin 20 (16 mg, 0.020 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (5 mL) and MgI₂ (56 mg, 0.20 mmol) and DIEA (0.070 mL, 0.40 mmol) were added. After 10 min the mixture was diluted with CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL), washed with 10% NaHCO₃ and dried. The resulting pink-violet residue was chromatographed on an alumina column (CH₂Cl₂/MeOH, 100:1, 100:2, 100:4) to afford the pink-violet product (5.0 mg, 31%). ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 1.80 (s, 18H, ArCH₃), 2.61 (s, 9H, ArCH₃), 7.23 (s, 6H, ArH), 7.8–8.1 (m, 4H, ArH), 8.5–8.9 (m, 8H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 795.3, obsd 797.4; FAB-MS obsd 794.3278, calcd exact mass 794.3294 (C₅₃H₄₆N₄SMg); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 426, 565, 605 nm.

5,10,15,20-Tetrakis[m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (27)

A solution of 513 mg of m-(thiocyanatomethyl)benzaldehyde (10, 2.9 mmol) and 0.20 mL of pyrrole (193 mg, 2.9 mmol) in 300 mL of CHCl₃ was purged with argon for 30 min. Under stirring at ambient temperature 12 μL of BF₃.O(Et)₂ (13 mg, 0.1 mmol) and 180 μL of TFA (266 mg, 2.3 mmol) were added. Soon the solution turned yellow and later to dark red. After 2 h an additional 90 μL of BF₃.O(Et)₂ (98 mg, 0.7 mmol) was added. After 2 h 500 μL of TEA (364 mg, 3.6 mmol) and 583 mg of o-tetrachlorobenzoquinone (2.4 mmol) were added and the mixture was refluxed for 1 h. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with ether/hexanes (3:1) gave 119 mg (0.1 mmol, 18% yield) of a dark purple solid. IR (neat) {tilde over (v)}=2953 (m, CH), 2917(s, CH), 2846 (m, CH), 2152 (m, CN), 1470 (m), 1392 (w), 1344 (w), 1152 (w), 1082 (w); ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=−2.84 (s, 2H, NH), 4.44 (s, 8H, CH₂), 7.76–7.85 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.18–8.25 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.88 (s, 8H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 899.1, obsd 901.7, 876.3 [M⁺-CN], 843.5 [M⁺-SCN], 818.1 [M⁺-SCN—CN], 785.1 [M⁺-2 SCN], 758.5 [M⁺-2 SCN-CN], 726.8 [M⁺-3 SCN], 668.0 [M⁺-4 SCN], 577.6 [M⁺-4 SCN-C₇H₇]; FAB-MS obsd 898.1797, calcd exact mass 898.1789 (C₅₂H₃₄N₈S₄); λ_(abs) (toluene) 420, 514, 549, 590, 646 nm.

Zinc(II)-5,10,15,20-Tetrakis[m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (Zn-27)

To a solution of 84 mg of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (27, 93 μmol) in 50 mL of CHCl₃ was added 250 mg of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (1.1 mmol) in 5 mL of methanol under stirring at ambient temperature. After completion of the metalation (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) the mixture was washed with 20 mL of 10% NaHCO₃ and 20 mL of H₂O, dried (Na₂SO₄) and filtered. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure affording 71 mg (74 μmol, 79% yield) of a dark purple solid. Recrystallization (CH₂Cl₂/methanol) gave dark purple crystals. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=2995 (m, CH), 2880 (w, CH), 2153 (m, CN), 1652 (w), 1601 (m, arom. C═C), 1478 (m), 1436 (m), 1338 (m), 1206 (m), 1070 (w), 1031 (w), 1001 (s), 934 (m), 795 (s), 707 (s); ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=4.44 (s, 8H, CH₂), 7.77–7.83 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.20–8.25 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.97 (s, 8H, βpyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 962.5, obsd 958.2, 900.2 [M⁺-SCN], 843.5 [M⁺-2 SCN], 787.5 [M⁺-3 SCN], 726.7 [M⁺-4 SCN]; FAB-MS obsd 960.0959, calcd exact mass 960.0924 (C₅₂H₃₂N₈S₄Zn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 422, 550, 589 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 603, 652 nm.

10,20-Diphenyl-5,15-bis[-m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (28)

A mixture of 316 mg of m-(thiocyanatomethyl)benzaldehyde (10, 1.8 mmol), 396 mg of 5-phenyldipyrromethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427–11440, Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391–1396) (1.8 mmol) and 1.07 g of NH₄Cl (20.0 mmol) in 200 mL of acetonitrile was purged with argon for 30 min. Under stirring at ambient temperature 23 μL of BF₃.O(Et)₂ (26 mg, 0.18 mmol) was added. Soon the solution turned to yellow and later to dark red. After 6.5 h, 607 mg of DDQ (2.7 mmol) was added. After 1 h the reaction was quenched with 0.5 mL of TEA (365 g, 3.6 mmol). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Purification was done by column chromatography over two flash silica gel columns with different solvent mixtures: (column 1) ether/hexanes (3:1) and (column 2) CH₂Cl₂/hexanes (gradient, start: 1:1). Two fractions of dark purple solids were obtained. I: 12 mg 10,15,20-triphenyl-5-[m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (17.5 μmol, 2% yield). II: 44 mg of the title compound (58.1 μmol, 7% yield). IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=2921 (s, CH), 2850 (m, CH), 2154 (m, CN), 1597 (m, arom. C═C), 1471 (s), 1348 (m), 1206 (m), 1181 (w), 1097 (w), 973 (s), 898 (w), 743 (s), 691 (s), 623 (s); ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=−2.811 (s, 2H, NH), 4.57 (s, 4H, CH₂), 7.71–7.83 (m, 11H, ArH), 8.17–8.25 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.84 (d, 4H, β-pyrrole, ³J=5.1 Hz), 8.88 (d, 4H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 756.9, obsd 757.4, 699.2 [M⁺-SCN], 641.0 [M⁺-2 SCN]; FAB-MS obsd 756.2172, calcd exact mass 756.2130 (C₄₈H₃₂N₆S₂); λ_(abs) (toluene) 420, 514, 549, 590, 647, 657 nm.

Zinc(II)-10,20-Diphenyl-5,15-bis[-m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (Zn-28)

A mixture of 38 mg of 10,20-diphenyl-5,15-bis[m-(thiocyanatomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (28, 50.2 μmol) in 30 mL of CH₂Cl₂ and a solution of 140 mg of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (0.64 mmol) in 5 mL of methanol were combined and stirred at ambient temperature. After completion of the metalation (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) 20 mL of H₂O were added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed with 20 mL of 5% NaHCO₃ and 20 mL of H₂O, dried (Na₂SO₄) and filtered. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with CH₂Cl₂/hexanes (5:1) gave 22 mg (26.8 μmol, 53% yield) of a dark purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3049 (w, arom. CH), 2924 (s, CH), 2853 (m, CH), 2154 (m, CN), 1598 (m, arom. C═C), 1522 (w), 1480 (m), 1440 (m), 1339 (m), 1206 (m), 1070 (m), 1002 (s), 934 (w), 796 (s), 741 (m), 703 (s), 662 (m); ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=4.44 (s, 4H, CH₂), 7.70–7.90 (m, 11H, ArH), 8.16–8.28 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.93 (d, 4H, β-pyrrole, ³J=4.2 Hz), 8.98 (d, 4H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 820.31, obsd 819.6, 792.3 [M⁺-CN], 761.5 [M⁺-SCN], 703.3 [M⁺-2 SCN], 626.0 [M⁺-2 SCN—C₆H₅], 613.5 [M⁺-2 SCN—C₇H₇]; FAB-MS obsd 818.1275, calcd exact mass 818.1265 (C₄₈H₃₀N₆S₂Zn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 424, 550, 590 mm; λ_(em) (toluene) 599, 647 mm.

5,10,15,20-Tetrakis[m-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (29)

A solution of 101 mg of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis[m-(bromomethyl)phenyl)porphyrin (Wen et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 7726–7733, Karaman et al. (1992) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 114: 4889–4898) (102 μmol) and 60 mg of potassium thioacetate (525 μmol) in 20 mL of THF was refluxed. After 5 h the mixture was cooled to room temperature. 30 mL of water was added. The mixture was cooled to room temperature and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with 40 mL of 5% NaHCO₃ solution and dried (Na₂SO₄). Column chromatography over flash silica gel with THF afforded a purple wax, which was purified by refluxing in hexanes. The mixture was filtered and the residue was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure, affording 63 mg (65 μmol, 63% yield) of a purple solid. IR (neat) {tilde over (v)}=3423 (m, NH), 3318 (m, NH), 2963 (w, CH), 2926 (w, CH), 1690 (s, CO), 1600 (w), 1562 (w), 1540 (w), 1508 (w), 1472 (w), 1420 (w), 1351 (w), 1132 (m), 1103 (w), 1018 (w), 997 (w), 957 (w), 917 (w), 800 (m), 718 (m); ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=−2.83 (s, 2H, NH), 2.40 (s, 12H, CH₃), 4.41 (s, 8H, CH₂), 7.65–7.75 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.06–8.17 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.84 (s, 8H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 966.2 (C₅₆H₄₆N₄O₄S₄), obsd 967.4, 925.3 [M⁺-COCH₃], 892.2 [M⁺-SCOCH₃], 850.0 [M⁺-SCOCH₃—COCH₃], 817.2 [M⁺-2 SCOCH₃], 775.5 [M⁺-2 SCOCH₃—COCH₃; λ_(abs) (toluene) 421, 515, 550, 591, 648 nm.

Zinc(II)-5,10,15,20-Tetrakis[m-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (Zn-29)

A mixture of 16.2 mg of 29 (16.7 μmol) in 20 mL of CHCl₃ and a solution of 80.0 mg of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (365 μmol) in 5 mL of methanol were combined and stirred at ambient temperature. After 2 h the metalation was completed (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) and 40 mL of H₂O was added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed three times with 5% NaHCO₃ and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with CH₂Cl₂/hexanes (4:1) gave the title compound as a purple solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=2922 (w, CH), 2849 (w, CH), 1690 (s, CO), 1655 (m, arom. C═C), 1600 (w, arom. C═C), 1478 (w), 1420 (w), 1338 (w), 1208 (m), 1131 (m), 1067 (w), 1002 (m), 955 (w), 932 (w), 794 (m), 717 (m); ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=2.30 (s, 12H, CH₃), 4.31 (s, 8H, CH₂), 7.62–7.69 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.05–8.13 (m, 8H, ArH), 8.92 (s, 8H, β-pyrrole); LD-MS calcd av mass 1028.15 (C₅₆H₄₄N₄O₄S₄Zn), obsd 1028.8, 986.6 [M⁺-COCH₃], 954.7 [M⁺-SCOCH₃], 911.3 [M⁺-SCOCH₃—COCH₃], 880.4 [M⁺-2 SCOCH₃], 838.8 [M⁺-2 SCOCH₃—COCH₃], 805.3 [M⁺-3 SCOCH₃]; λabs (toluene) 424, 550, 589 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 597, 647 nm.

Cobalt(II)-5,10,15,20-Tetrakis[m-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]porphyrin (Co-29)

A mixture of 14.2 mg of 29 (14.7 μmol) in 20 mL of CHCl₃ and a solution of 60.0 mg of Co(OAc)₂.4H₂O (339 μmol) in 5 mL of methanol were combined and stirred at ambient temperature. After 5 h an additional 261.0 mg of Co(OAc)₂.4H₂O (1.5 mmol) was added because there was still free base porphyrin left. Stirring at room temperature was continued. After 20 h the metalation was completed (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy) and 30 mL of H₂O was added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed three times with 5% NaHCO₃ and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Column chromatography over flash silica gel with CH₂Cl₂/hexanes (5:1) gave the title compound as an orange-purple solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3037 (w, arom. CH), 2955 (w, CH), 2924 (m, CH), 2849 (w, CH), 1725 (w), 1693 (s, CO), 1601 (w, arom. C═C), 1455 (w), 1422 (w), 1350 (m), 1131 (m), 1003 (m), 957 (w), 796 (m), 714 (m); LD-MS calcd av mass 1023.16 (C₅₆H₄₄N₄O₄S₄Co), obsd 1023.4, 980.3 [M⁺-COCH₃], 948.3 [M⁺-SCOCH₃], 875.2 [M⁺-2 SCOCH₃]; λ_(abs) (toluene) 414, 529 nm.

Example 2 Setting and Reading the State of a Porphyrinic Macrocycle

1. Preparation of Gold Electrodes, Formation of Electrochemical Cell, Deposition of Thiol-Porphyrin Monolayer.

Glass slides were soaked in 90° C. piranha solution for thirty minutes, thoroughly rinsed with doubly distilled water, and dried under vacuum. A 1 nm layer of chromium was evaporated onto the glass, followed by 100 nm of gold through a thin mask consisting of four parallel lines, each with a width of approximately 75 microns, spaced at approximately 1 mm intervals. All depositions were done at 10⁻⁶ torr using an E-beam evaporator.

Immediately after venting of the vacuum system, the slides were removed and stored under dry ethanol until use. The slides were dried with a stream of nitrogen and a piece of PDMS with a 3 mm diameter hole in the center was immediately placed over all four gold electrodes and filled with a porphyrin solution (0.1 mg per milliliter in dry ethanol) (Z-15 from example 1).

The slide was then sonicated at room temperature for 15 minutes which was found to facilitate monolayer formation. After sonication, the PDMS mask was removed and the slide was rinsed with dry ethanol. A new PDMS mask was prepared by casting a 10:1 ratio solution of monomer to catalyst into a mold consisting of a pyramidal channel with a 40 μm by 1 cm base width. This new mask was placed on top of the porphyrin-covered electrodes to form the electrochemical cell. The channel was filled with 1.0 M TBAP, and a silver wire reference electrode was used to complete the electrical circuit. This creates four identical porphyrin-covered gold electrodes with 40 by 75 micron dimensions, each of which is individually addressable using a common backplane reference electrode. The porphyrin monolayer was then analyzed with cyclic voltammetry to establish that the porphyrin had bound to the gold substrate and to establish the extent of coverage of the monolayer on the gold surface (FIG. 23).

II. Reading and Writing Porphyrin Bits.

A labview program was written to apply a potential pulse (the pulse was applied to the reference electrode, since the working electrode was maintained at ground potential). Thus, the potential was inverted and applied to the reference electrode. The waveform was generated at 5 MHz and applied to a bare silver wire reference electrode. The current response was monitored through the gold working electrode. The reference electrode was poised at a constant DC potential using a home built potentiostat that also amplifies the resulting current.

In order to write a bit into the porphyrin monolayer, it was necessary to apply the appropriate potential to create the appropriate oxidation state of the porphyrin. The reference electrode was poised at three DC potentials while the working electrode was held at zero potential, in order to probe the response at the neutral and at both non-neutral oxidation states of the porphyrin (FIG. 23). A 0–300 mV potential pulse was applied below the first oxidation potential to record the background charging current. At 300 mV, there was no redox process occurring, thus, only the background charging current was observed. The electrode was then set at 500 mV DC and an identical 300 mV potential pulse was applied raising the potential to 800 mV and thereby eliciting the first oxidation of the porphyrin.

This current response was the sum of the faradaic current superimposed on the background charging current. Because the background was constant, the first response could be subtracted from the latter and the remainder was the faradaic current.

A second potential step was applied from 800–1100 mV. This step oxidized the porphyrin into the second oxidation state and produced a second increment of faradaic current which again was background subtracted. The background subtracted currents had approximately equal magnitude because each corresponded to a one electron processes in the same molecule(s) immobilized to the electrode surface. The amplified signal was acquired at 5 MHz giving a time resolution of 200 ns per data point which was sufficient to detect the roughly 70 μs transient response. The background-subtracted instantaneous current was integrated to produce a plot of the instantaneous charge as a function of time (FIG. 23).

Once the porphyrin was set at a given oxidation state, it could be read by applying the appropriate negative potential step. For example, the higher bit could be read simply by stepping between 1100–800 mV. The lower bit could be read by stepping between 800–500 mV. The charging current could be determined by stepping between 300–0 mV. Again, the background was subtracted from each step to determine the background-subtracted read current (FIG. 25). The read/write cycles are illustrated in FIG. 24.

Example 3 Tightly Coupled Porphyrin Arrays for Molecular Memory Storage

We have been developing approaches for molecular-based information storage where information is stored in the different oxidation states of molecular porphyrin arrays. To explore a simple design for suitable storage molecules, we report here the synthesis of porphyrin arrays where porphyrins, having identical oxidation potentials, are directly linked to one another instead of joined via a molecular linker. Oxidative coupling with AgPF₆ of zinc(II)-5,15-bis(4-tert-butylphenyl)-10-phenylporphyrin, obtained by a rational synthesis, afforded the expected meso,meso-linked dimer and an unexpected meso,meso,meso-linked trimer. For attachment to an electroactive surface we synthesized a meso,meso-linked porphyrin dimer with a thiol-linker in one of the meso-positions. The thiol-group was protected as thioacetyl moiety to avoid handling of free thiol groups. Coupling of zinc(II)-5,10,15-tris(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)porphyrin (“upper half”) and zinc(II)-10,20-bis(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)-5-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]porphyrin (“bottom half”) afforded a set of three different meso,meso-linked dimers with the desired one as the main product. Electrochemical examination of the meso,meso-linked dimer in solution showed that the charge introduced upon oxidation of one of the porphyrin units shifts the oxidation potential of the adjacent porphyrin. Thereby two bits of information can be stored in such a structure. No significant shift of the oxidation potentials was observed in the trimer in this instance.

Introduction.

In order to simplify the construction of the arrays for molecular based information storage, we decided to synthesize porphyrin arrays where the porphyrins are directly linked to one another (Osuka and Shimidzu (1997) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 36: 135–137; Yoshida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett. 55–56; Nakano et al. (1998) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 3023–3027; Senge and Feng (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 4165–4168). We expected that the juxtaposition of the porphyrins in the arrays would result in strong (“tightly”) coupling between the two constituents. This means that the charge introduced upon oxidation of one of the porphyrin units shifts the oxidation potential of the adjacent porphyrin. In this manner, identical porphyrins can be used in the construction of the multiporphyrin array while still maintaining the ability to access multiple oxidation states.

Storing and retrieving information in redox-active molecules requires a means of electrical communication from the macroscopic world to the molecular assemblies. One means of electrical communication involves the attachment of redox-active molecules via a thiol linker to an electroactive surface such as gold (Zak et al. (1993) Langmuir 9: 2772–2774; Postlethwaite et al. (1995) Langmuir 11: 4109–4116; Kondo et al. (1996) Thin Solid Films 284–285: 652–655; Simpson et al. (1996) Analyst 121: 1501–1505; Simpson et al. (1997) Langmuir 13: 460–464; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Lett. 267–268; Ishida et al. (1998) Chem. Commun. 57–58; Imahori et al. (1998) Langmuir 14: 5335–5338; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 71: 2555–2559). To overcome the problem of handling free thiol groups we decided to use protected thiol groups, especially after the report of Tour et al. that an S-acetylthio-substituted phenylethynyl oligomer underwent deprotection in situ upon exposure to the gold surface (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 9529–9534). Recently we have synthesized a number of porphyrin monomers bearing one, two, or four protected thiol units and have investigated the utility of a variety of different thiol protecting groups (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634–8647).

In this example, we report the synthesis of five different meso,meso-linked porphyrin dimers and trimers. The electrochemical properties of the dimers and trimers have been investigated in solution. Two dimers bear acetyl protected thiol groups for attachment to gold surfaces.

Results and Discussion.

Our first target molecule was a meso,meso-linked porphyrin dimer of two identical porphyrin monomers. With this molecule we wanted to test if the juxtaposition affords strong coupling between the two porphyrin units, so that the redox potentials of the structurally identical porphyrin units are shifted by a reasonable amount.

The preparation of the monomer utilized a new rational synthesis of meso-susbstituted porphyrins (Cho et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 7890–7901). Treatment of 5-phenyldipyrromethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391–1396) with ethyl magnesium bromide followed by acylation with 4-tert-butylbenzoyl chloride led to the diacylated dipyrromethane 1.(Scheme 1, FIG. 26). Reduction with excess NaBH₄ in THF/methanol afforded the corresponding diol, which was condensed with dipyrromethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron 50: 11427–11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391–1396) under TFA catalysis. The desired porphyrin 2 was obtained in 35% yield as a purple solid. This synthesis route afforded the desired porphyrin with one free meso-position without acidolytic scrambling. Porphyrin 2 is almost insoluble in common solvents. Metalation with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O in refluxing CHCl₃ afforded Zn-2 in quantitative yield, which also has low solubility.

For the meso,meso-linked coupling of Zn-2 we used the method reported by Osuka et al. (Osuka and Shimidzu (1997) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 36: 135–137) which employed AgPF₆ in a mixture of CHCl₃ and acetonitrile as the oxidizing agent. Due to the low solubility of Zn-2 the reaction was run under reflux instead of room temperature. Using 0.5 mol equiv of AgPF₆ as reported by Osuka et al., supra., led only to a small amount of dimerization (˜10%, checked by analytical SEC). After addition of another 0.5 mol equiv of AgPF₆, quantitative conversion occurred within 15 h. Because slight demetalation occurred under the coupling conditions, the crude mixture was again treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O. We obtained two different oligomers, the expected dimer Zn-4 in 89% yield and, surprisingly, also the trimer Zn-3 in 9% yield (Scheme 2, FIG. 27). Both are brown-purple solids and exhibit good solubility in common solvents. The substitution pattern of Zn-3 was confirmed by its ¹H NMR spectrum, which is almost identical with that of Zn-4 with addition of a peak due to the tert-butyl groups and the presence of the AA′BB′ pattern from the protons of the central aryl groups. Such a spectrum arises from a symmetrical molecule and the suggested structure is the only possibility for Zn-3.

Electrochemical examination of porphyrin dimer Zn-4 revealed oxidation waves at +0.49 and +0.66 V for the formation of the monocation of the two porphyrin units comprising porphyrin dimer Zn-4. This is to be compared with the single oxidation wave for the corresponding porphyrin monomer, which is expected at 0.58 V. The appearance of two waves in porphyrin dimer Zn-4 indicates that the oxidation of the first porphyrin unit, forming the monocation, shifts the oxidation potential of the second porphyrin unit to higher potential. A similar potential shift occurred for the second oxidation of each porphyrin unit (Table 1). The electrochemical examination of porphyrin trimer Zn-3 showed that only the oxidation potentials of the central porphyrin unit are shifted by the neighboring units. The two terminal porphyrin units do not significantly influence the oxidation potentials of each other and overlapping of the waves was observed.

Driven by the positive results for the porphyrin dimer Zn-4 we decided to synthesize a meso,meso-linked porphyrin dimer bearing a thiol linker for attachment to a gold surface. To improve the solubility of the monomers we chose 3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl groups as substituents for the non-linking meso-positions.

The “bottom” porphyrin Zn-8 with the S-acetyl protected thiol group was synthesized in a similar way as for monomer Zn-2. Diacylation of dipyrromethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391–1396) with 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoyl chloride afforded dipyrromethane 7 as a white powder after crystallization (Scheme 3, FIG. 28). For the synthesis of dipyrromethane 6 there are at least two conceivable pathways. The first attempt to synthesize this molecule involved reaction of commercially available 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde with pyrrole to give the corresponding dipyrromethane (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634–8647). Ho wever, subsequent treatment with sodium tert-butoxide (Pinchart et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 5479–5482), followed by quenching of the anion with acetyl chloride did not afford the desired product (equation 1, FIG. 29). In this situation we decided to change our strategy. Thus reaction of 4-S-acetylthiobenzaldehyde (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634–8647) with pyrrole afforded dipyrromethane 6 in 62% yield (equation 2, FIG. 30). Reduction of 7 to the corresponding diol and condensation with 6 under TFA catalysis yielded porphyrin 8 in 10% yield, accompanied by disulfide 9 in 3% yield. Metalation of 8 with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O gave Zn-8 as a purple solid in 90% yield. Disulfide 9 was metalated likewise, affording Zn-9 in 60% yield as an orange-purple solid (Scheme 4, FIG. 31).

The synthesis of the “top” porphyrin Zn-10 was done using the same method as before but in much better yield. Reduction of the diacylated dipyrromethane 7 with NaBH₄ and condensation of the resulting diol with 5-(3,5-di-tertbutylphenyl)dipyrromethane (Imahori et al. (1999) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn, 72: 485–502) under TFA catalysis afforded porphyrin 10 as a purple solid in 21% yield (Scheme 5, FIG. 32). Metalation with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O led to Zn-10 as a red-purple solid in quantitative yield. Zn-10, like all the other porphyrin monomers (8, Zn-8 and 10) and disulfides (9 and Zn-9) bearing 3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl groups in the meso-positions, exhibits good solubility in common solvents.

Coupling of Zn-8 and Zn-10 with AgPF₆ in refluxing CHCl₃ afforded the expected three dimers in almost quantitative yield. Traces of higher oligomers were also present. After remetalation with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O we obtained porphyrin dimers Zn-11, Zn-12 and Zn-13 in 30%, 44% and 23% yield, respectively (Scheme 6, FIG. 33). All porphyrin dimers are purple solids with good solubility in common solvents. Under these reaction conditions the acetylthio group remained intact.

Conclusion.

Various meso,meso-linked porphyrin dimers and trimers have been synthesized. The electrochemical studies of the dimers in solution revealed a shift of the oxidation potential for the generation of the monocation of the second porphyrin unit after oxidation of the first porphyrin unit. This shift in the oxidation potentials of the individual porphyrin units provides an opportunity to access distinct and different oxidation potentials in a dimeric array where each porphyrin unit is identical. The effect was small in the trimers tested herein.

Experimental

General.

All reactions involving porphyrin formation and transformation were performed with shielding from ambient light. All chemicals obtained commercially were used as received unless noted otherwise. Reagent grade solvents (CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃, hexanes, ethyl ether, ethyl acetate) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher. THF was distilled from sodium/benzophenone. All reported NMR spectra were obtained at 300 MHz. UV-Vis absorption and fluorescence spectra were recorded in toluene. Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200–400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80–200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desorption (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix using a Bruker Proflex II mass spectrometer, fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS) using a JEOL HX 110HF mass spectrometer (ion source 40° C., CsKI or polyethylene glycol standards, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the porphyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS). Porphyrin metalation was monitored by fluorescence excitation and emission spectroscopy. Preparative scale size exclusion chromatography (SEC) was performed using BioRad Bio-Beads SX-1 with toluene as eluent. The chromatography was performed with gravity flow. Analytical scale SEC was performed with a Hewlett-Packard 1090 HPLC using a 1000 Å column (5 μL, styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer) with THF as eluent.

General Procedure for Metal Insertion.

A solution of porphyrin in CHCl₃ or CH₂Cl₂ and a solution/suspension of the metal acetate in methanol were combined and stirred. After the metalation was completed (checked by fluorescence excitation spectroscopy), H₂O was added. The phases were separated and the organic layer was washed three times with 5% NaHCO₃ and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. Purification was done by column chromatography over flash silica gel.

1,9-Bis(4-tert-butylbenzoyl)-5-phenyldipyrromethane (1)

To a solution of 5-phenyldipyrromethane (Lee and Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron 50: 11427–11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391–1396) (2.22 g, 10 mmol) in toluene (200 mL) stirred under argon and cooled in a water bath was slowly added a solution of ethyl magnesium bromide (1 M solution in THF, 50 mL, 50 mmol). The resulting brown-orange mixture was stirred for 30 min. Then a solution of 4-tert-butylbenzoyl chloride (4.9 mL, 25.1 mmol) in toluene (25 mL) was added dropwise. The solution became darker and was stirred for 1 h after the addition was completed. Then the reaction was quenched with satd aq NH₄Cl (100 mL). Ethyl acetate (100 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water, 2 M aq NaOH, water and brine and then dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was filtered through a pad of silica and eluted with CH₂Cl₂/ethyl acetate 10:1. The solvents were again removed under reduced pressure and the brown residue was purified by column chromatography (1^(st) column: alumina, hexanes—CH₂Cl₂/hexanes —CH₂Cl₂-CH₂Cl₂/MeOH; 2^(nd) column: silica, ethyl ether/hexanes 1:2; 3^(rd) column: silica: CH₂Cl₂/ethyl acetate 5:1), affording 2.96 g (5.5 mmol, 55%) as a brown solid. mp 133° C.; IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3438, 3251, 2963, 2903, 2868, 1611, 1556, 1479; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.34 (s, 18H), 5.67 (s, 1H), 6.00 (dd, 2H, ³J=3.7 Hz, ⁴J=2.9 Hz), 6.64 (dd, 2H, ³J=3.7 Hz, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 7.30–7.51 (m, 5H), 7.42, 7.73 (AA′BB′, 2×4H), 11.04 (br, s, 2H); ³C NMR (75.6 MHz, CDCl₃, ATP): δ=31.1 (−), 34.9 (+), 44.9 (−), 111.0 (−), 120.6 (−), 124.9 (−), 127.3 (−), 128.8 (−), 129.2 (−), 129.5 (−) 131.0 (+), 135.6 (+), 140.5 (+), 140.8 (+), 155.0 (+), 184.3 (+); EI obsd 542, 527, 465, 409, 381, 316; Anal. Calcd. for C₃₇H₃₈N₂O₂: C, 81.88; H, 7.06; N, 5.16; Found: C, 81.79; H, 7.22; N, 5.21.

5,15-Bis(4-tert-butylphenyl)-10-phenylporphyrin (2)

To a solution of 1 (500 mg, 921 μmol) in a 1:2 mixture of methanol/THF (27 mL) was added NaBH₄ (1.74 g, 46 mmol) in several portions. The mixture was stirred for 2.5 h, then quenched with water (40 mL) and extracted with CH₂Cl₂. The organic phase was dried (K₂CO₃) and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The yellow residue and dipyrromethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391–1396) (135 mg, 923 μmol) were then dissolved in acetonitrile and stirred at room temperature in the dark. Then TFA (852 μL, 11.1 mmol) was added and the solution turned dark immediately. After 20 min DDQ (630 mg, 2.8 mmol) was added because the yield did not increase any further (checked by oxidizing an aliquot with DDQ and quantifying with UV/VIS spectroscopy). After stirring for 1.5 h the mixture was filtered through a pad of alumina and eluted with CH₂Cl₂. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a mixture of CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:1. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:1-CH₂Cl₂) afforded 211 mg (324 μmol, 35%) of a purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3312, 3030, 2957, 2864, 1596, 1560, 1500; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=−2.99 (s, 2H), 1.62 (s, 18H), 7.70–7.82 (m, 3H), 7.78, 8.18 (AA′,BB′, 2×4H), 8.14–8.24 (m, 2H), 8.85 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 8.95 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.06 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.33 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 10.20 (s, 1H); LD-MS obsd 649.9; FAB-MS obsd 650.3416, calcd exact mass 650.3409 (C₄₆H₄₂N₄); λ_(abs) (toluene) 415, 509, 543, 586, 641 nm.

Zinc(II)-5,15-bis(4-tert-butylphenyl)-10-phenylporphyrin (Zn-2)

A suspension of 2 (112 mg, 172 μmol) in CHCl₃ (50 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (3.78 g, 172 mmol) in methanol (10 mL) were combined and refluxed 2 h. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure to afford 123 mg (172 μmol, 100%) of a bright purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3081, 3022, 2956, 1498; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.63 (s, 18H), 7.71–7.83 (m, 3H), 7.78, 8.17 (AA′BB′, 2×4H), 8.20–8.25 (m, 2H), 8.96 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.04 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.14 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.40 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 10.25 (s, 1H); LD-MS obsd 714.1; FAB-MS obsd 712:2565, calcd exact mass 712.2544 (C₄₆H₄₀N₄Zn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 419, 544, 582 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 592, 639 run.

Meso-meso-meso porphyrin trimer Zn-3 and meso-meso porphyrin dimer Zn-4

To a suspension of Zn-2 (31.1 mg, 43.5 μmol) in CHCl₃ (20 mL) was added a solution of AgPF₆ (5.5 mg, 21.8 μmol) in acetonitrile (3 mL). The mixture was refluxed for 8 h. Then more AgPF₆ (5.5 mg, 21.8 μmol) was added because the reaction stopped (monitored by analytical SEC). After an additional 15 h the reaction was quenched with water (30 mL). The phases were separated and the organic phase was washed with water and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The brown-purple solid was dissolved again in CHCl₃ (30 mL). A solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (290 mg, 1.3 mmol) in methanol (7 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred for 3 h in the dark. Then the reaction was quenched with water and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed three times with 5% aq NaHCO₃ and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a minimum amount of toluene. Purification by preparative SEC with toluene afforded 2.8 mg of the meso,meso,meso-trimer (1.4 μmol, 9% yield) as a brown solid and 27.6 mg of the meso,meso-dimer (19.3 μmol, 89% yield) as a brown-purple solid. Zn-3: IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=2959, 2922, 2854, 1542, 1458; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.54 (s, 18H), 1.56 (s, 36H), 7.59, 8.15 (AA′BB′, 2×4H), 7.70, 8.18 (AA′BB′, 2×8H), 7.78–7.85 (m, 6H), 8.15–8.22 (m, 4H), 8.23 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 8.30–8.36 (m, 4H), 8.76 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 8.77 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.03 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.07 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz); LD-MS obsd 2056.8 [M⁺], 2000.7 [M⁺-^(t)Bu]; FAB-MS obsd 2062.68, calcd exact mass 2062.70 (C₁₃₂H₁₁₂N₁₂Zn₃); λ_(abs) (toluene) 419, 477, 567 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 641, 664 run; Zn-4: IR (neat): =2958, 2868, 1558, 1488; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.52 (s, 36H), 7.67, 8.15 (AA′BB′, 2×8H), 7.74–7.86 (m, 6H), 8.18–8.20 (m, 4H), 8.31 (d, 4H, ³J=3.7 Hz), 8.71 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.01 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.04 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1423.7; FAB-MS obsd 1422.48, calcd exact mass 1422.49 (C₉₂H₇₈N₈Zn₂); λ_(abs) (toluene) 421, 459, 561 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 634, 659 mm.

5-[4-Methylthiophenyl]dipyrromethane (5)

Pyrrole (50.0 mL, 720 mmol) and 4-methylthiobenzaldehyde (3.83 mL, 28.8 mmol) were added to a 250 mL flask and degassed with a stream of argon. Then TFA (0.22 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred under argon at room temperature for 5 min and quenched with 0.1 M NaOH. Ethyl acetate was then added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water and dried (Na₂SO₄). Then the solvent was removed under vacuum to afford an orange oil. Bulb-to-bulb distillation (200° C., 0.01 mmHg) gave a yellow oil. The oil was dissolved in EtOH and addition of a small amount of water afforded white crystals (5.00 g, 64.7%). mp 94–95° C.; ¹H NMR δ 2.51 (s, 3H), 5.43 (s, 1H), 5.95 (s, 2H), 6.21 (m, 2H), 6.69 (m, 2H), 7.17, 7.25 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.87 (br, s, 2H); ³C NMR δ 16.6, 44.1, 108.0, 109.2, 118.1, 127.6, 129.6, 133.1, 137.7, 139.8; EI-MS obsd 268.1033 (M⁺), calcd exact mass 268.1034; Anal. Calcd. for C₁₆H₁₆N₂S: C, 71.60; H, 6.01; N, 10.44; S, 11.95; Found: C, 71.60; H, 5.99; N, 10.31; S, 11.81.

5-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyl]dipyrromethane (6)

Pyrrole (34.0 mL, 489 mmol) and 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde ((Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8634–8647) (3.50 g, 19.4 mmol) were added to a 100 mL flask and degassed with a stream of argon. Then TFA (0.15 mL, 1.94 mmol) was added and the mixture was stirred under argon at room temperature for 5 min and quenched with DIEA (0.330 mL, 1.94 mmol). All volatile materials were evaporated under high-vacuum. The crude mixture was filtered through a pad of silica to afford a yellow oil, which was dissolved in EtOH and allowed to stand at −20° C. for 3 days. Yellowish crystals were isolated by filtration. The filtrate was concentrated, a small amount of water was added and the mixture was allowed to stand at −20° C. for a few days, affording a second crop of crystals (3.56 g, 62.0%). mp 100–101° C.; ¹H NMR δ 2.44 (s, 3H), 5.40 (s, 1H), 5.90 (s, 2H), 6.18 (m, 2H), 6.62 (m, 2H), 7.20, 7.34 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.97 (br, s, 2H); ¹³C NMR δ 31.0, 44.3, 108.2, 108.9, 118.3, 126.8, 130.1, 132.8, 135.3, 144.7, 195.7; EI-MS obsd 296.0996 (M⁺), calcd exact mass 296.0983; Anal. calcd. for C₁₇H₁₆N₂OS: C, 68.89; H, 5.44; N, 9.45; S, 10.82; Found: C, 68.69; H, 5.56; N, 9.39; S, 10.91.

1,9-Bis(3.5-di-tert-butylbenzoyl)dipyrromethane (7)

To a solution of dipyrromethane (Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 1391–1396) (421 mg, 2.9 mmol) in toluene (60 mL) stirred under argon and cooled in a water bath was slowly added a solution of ethyl magnesium bromide (1 M solution in THF, 14.4 mL, 14.4 mmol). The resulting brown-orange mixture was stirred for 30 min at ambient temperature. 3,5-Di-tert-butylbenzoic acid was refluxed in thionyl chloride in the presence of 1 vol % DMF. A colorless liquid, bp 167° C. (water suction pump) was obtained in 89% yield. A solution of 3,5-di-tert-butylbenzoyl chloride (1.82 g, 7.2 mmol) in toluene (8 mL) was added dropwise to the brown-orange mixture. The solution became darker and was stirred for 2 h after the addition was completed. Then the reaction was quenched with satd aq NH₄Cl (30 mL). Ethyl acetate (60 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water, 2 M aq NaOH, water and brine and then dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was filtered through a pad of silica and eluted with CH₂Cl₂/ethyl acetate 6:1–5:3. The solvents were again removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a small amount of ethyl acetate. Hexanes was added until turbidity occurred. The mixture was cooled overnight at −20° C. and filtered, affording 442 mg (0.8 mmol, 27%) of a white powder. mp 220° C.; IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3263, 2963, 1607, 1582,1485; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.32 (s, 36H), 4.27 (s, 2H), 6.17–6.13 (m, 2H), 6.71–6.77 (m, 2H), 7.57 (s, 2H), 7.72 (s, 4H), 11.47 (br, s, 2H); ¹³C NMR (75.6 MHz, CDCl₃, ATP): δ=26.8 (+), 31.3 (−), 34.9 (+), 110.0 (−), 121.1 (−), 123.6 (−), 125.6 (−), 131.2 (+), 137.5 (+), 138.0 (+), 150.5 (+), 185.6 (−); Anal. Calcd. for C₃₉H₅₀N₂O₂: C, 80.93; H, 8.71; N, 4.84; Found: C, 80.69; H, 8.72; N, 4.85.

10,20-Bis(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)-5-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]porphyrin (8)

To a solution of 7 (397 mg, 686 μmol) in a 1:2 mixture of methanol/THF (21 mL) under argon was added NaBH₄ (1.30 g, 34 mmol) in several portions. The mixture was stirred for 2.5 h, then quenched with water (40 mL) and extracted with CH₂Cl₂. The organic phase was dried (K₂CO₃) and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The yellow foam obtained and 5-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]dipyrromethane 6 (204 mg, 686 μmol) were dissolved in acetonitrile and stirred at room temperature. Then TFA (640 μL, 8.3 mmol) was added and the solution immediately turned dark blue. After 25 min DDQ (467 mg, 2.1 mmol) was added because the yield did not increase any further (checked by oxidizing an aliquot with DDQ and quantifying with UV/VIS spectroscopy). After 1.5 h the mixture was filtered through a pad of alumina and eluted with CH₂Cl₂. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was purified by column chromatography on silica (1^(st) column: CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:4–1:1, 2^(nd) column: CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:2). Two fractions of brown-purple solids were obtained, yielding 14 mg of the disulfide 9 (9 μmol, 3% yield) and 57 mg of 8 (68 μmol, 10% yield). 9: IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3316, 2961, 2924, 2854, 1592, 1466; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=−2.94 (s, 4H), 1.52 (s, 72H), 7.79 (t, 4H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.10, 8.30 (AA′BB′, 2×4H), 8.10 (d, 8H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.94 (d, 4H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 8.96 (d, 4H, ³j=5.1 Hz), 9.07 (d, 4H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.34 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 10.22 (s, 2H); LD-MS obsd 1589.4 [M⁺], 793.4 [M⁺/2]; FAB-MS obsd 1586.87, calcd exact mass 1586.86 (C₁₀₈H₁₁₄N₈S₂); λ_(abs) (toluene) 417, 511, 544, 586, 642 nm. 8: IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3307, 2958, 2861, 1708, 1590, 1467; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=−2.95 (s, 2H), 1.55 (s, 36H), 2.60 (s, 3H), 7.81, 8.28 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.82 (t, 2H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 4H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.88 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 8.97 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.08 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.35 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 10.2 (s, 1H); LD-MS obsd 837.2 [M⁺], 852.2 [M⁺+15], 809.2 [M⁺-CO], 795.1 [M⁺-COCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 836.4503, calcd exact mass 836.4488 (C₅₆H₆₀N₄OS); λ_(abs) (toluene) 416, 510, 544, 585, 641 nm.

Zinc(II)-10,20-Bis(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)-5-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]porphyrin (Zn-8)

A solution of 6 (56 mg, 172 μmol) in CHCl₃ (20 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (734 mg, 3.3 mmol) in methanol (5 mL) were combined and stirred 6.5 h. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:1) afforded 54 mg (60.0 μmol, 90%) of a purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3066, 2956, 1703, 1675, 1590, 1469; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.55 (s, 36H), 2.59 (s, 3H), 7.79, 8.28 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.82 (t, 2H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 8.12 (d, 4H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 8.99 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.06 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.17 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.43 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 10.29 (s, 1H); LD-MS obsd 900.1, 915.2 [M⁺+15], 872.0 [M⁺-CO], 857.9 [M⁺-COCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 898.3617, calcd exact mass 898.3623 (C₅₆H₅₈N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 420, 545, 583 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 591, 640 nm.

Zinc(II)-Disulfide Zn-9

A solution of 9 (14 mg, 8.8 μmol) in CHCl₃ (5 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (193 mg, 879 μmol) in methanol (2 mL) were combined and stirred. After 7 h an additional 194 mg (879 μmol) of Zn(OAc)₂.H₂O was added and stirring was continued for 15.5 h. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:2) afforded 9.0 mg (5.2 μmol, 60%) of an orange-purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3067, 2959, 2923, 2862, 1592, 1468; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.51 (s, 72H), 7.78 (s, 4H), 8.10, 8.30 (AA′BB′, 2×4H), 8.10 (s, 8H), 9.05 (s, 8H), 9.16 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.42 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 10.28 (s, 2H); LD-MS obsd 1716.6, 871.2 [M⁺/2+15], 856.2 [M⁺/2], 751.9 [M⁺-S-^(t)Bu-Me]; FAB-MS obsd 1710.71, calcd exact mass 1710.69 (C₁₀₈H₁₁₀N₈S₂Zn²); λ_(abs) (toluene) 421, 545, 585 mm; λ_(em) (toluene) 594, 641 nm.

5,10,15-Tris(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)porphyrin (10)

To a solution of 7 (578 mg, 1.0 mmol) in a 1:2 mixture of methanol/THF (30 mL) under argon was added NaBH₄ (1.89 g, 50 mmol) in several portions. The mixture was stirred for 2 h, then quenched with water (60 mL) and extracted with CH₂Cl₂. The organic phase was dried (K₂CO₃) and the solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The resulting orange oil and crude 5-(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)dipyrromethane (Imahori et al. (1999) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn, 72: 485–502) (334 mg, 1.0 mmol) were dissolved in acetonitrile and stirred at room temperature. Then TFA (930 μL, 12.1 mmol) was added and the solution immediately turned dark blue. After 25 min DDQ (680 mg, 3.0 mmol) was added because the yield did not increase any further (checked by oxidizing an aliquot with DDQ and quantifying with UV/VIS spectroscopy). After 75 min the solution was filtered through a pad of alumina and eluted with CH₂Cl₂. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:4–1:2), affording 183 mg (209 μmol, 21% yield) a purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3305, 3064, 2958, 1588, 1468; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=−2.91 (s, 2H), 1.51 (s, 18H), 1.55 (s, 36H), 7.79 (t, 1H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 7.81 (t, 2H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 8.07 (d, 2H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 2H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 8.92 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 8.96 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.07 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.34 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 10.20 (s, 1H); LD-MS obsd 875.7; FAB-MS obsd 874.5935, calcd exact mass 874.5913 (C₆₂H₇₄N₄); λ_(abs) (toluene) 416, 510, 544, 585, 641 nm.

Zinc(II)-5,10,15-Tris(3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)porphyrin (Zn-10)

A solution of 10 (177 mg, 202.2 μmol) in CHCl₃ (40 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (2.22 g, 10.1 mmol) in methanol (10 mL) were combined and stirred 21 h. Purification by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:2) afforded 187 mg (199.2 μmol, 99%) of a red-purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3060, 2960, 2872, 1591, 1470; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.52 (s, 18H), 1.54 (s, 36H), 7.78 (t, 1H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 7.81 (t, 2H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.08 (d, 2H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 2H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 9.03 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.06 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.15 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.41 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 10.27 (s, 1H); LD-MS obsd 937.6, 951.8 [M⁺+15], 752.1 [M⁺-3 ^(t)Bu-Me]; FAB-MS obsd 936.5057, calcd exact mass 936.5048 (C₆₂H₇₂N₄Zn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 419, 545 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 591, 639 nm.

Meso-meso Porphyrin Dimers Zn-11, Zn-12 and Zn-13

To a solution of Zn-8 (15.9 mg, 17.7 μmol) and Zn-10 (16.6 mg, 17.7 μmol) in CHCl₃ (20 mL) was added a solution of AgPF₆ (8.9 mg, 35.2 μmol) in acetonitrile (3 mL). The mixture was refluxed for 7 h. Then more AgPF₆ (15 mg, 59.3 μmol) was added because the reaction stopped (monitored by analytical SEC). After an additional 22 h an additional 22 mg (87.0 μmol) of AgPF₆ was added because the reaction stopped again. Refluxing was continued for 19 h and then the reaction was quenched with water (30 mL). The phases were separated and the organic phase was washed with water and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The dark purple solid was dissolved in CHCl₃ (30 mL). A solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (390 mg, 1.8 mmol) in methanol (7 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred for 3 h in the dark. Then the reaction was quenched with water (50 mL) and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed three times with 5% aq NaHCO₃ and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in a minimum amount of toluene. Purification by preparative SEC followed by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 1:2–2:3) afforded 9.9 mg of Zn-11 (5.3 μmol, 30% yield) as an orange solid, 14.3 mg of Zn-12 (7.8 μmol, 44% yield) as a red-purple solid and 7.3 mg of Zn-13 (4.1 μmol, 23% yield) as a brown-purple solid. Zn-11: IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3060, 2956, 2861, 1592, 1465; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.43 (s, 72H), 1.57 (s, 36H), 7.68 (t, 4H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 7.83 (t, 2H, ⁴J=1.4 Hz), 8.08 (d, 8H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 8.15 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 8.30 (d, 4H, ⁴J=1.4 Hz), 8.71 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.04 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 9.08 (d, 4H, ³J=5.1 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1877.1; FAB-MS obsd 1870.87, calcd exact mass 1870.99 (C₁₂₄H₁₄₂N₈Zn₂); λ_(abs) (toluene) 421, 460, 561 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 625, 660 nm. Zn-12: IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=3069, 2955, 1700, 1588, 1465; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.43 (s,36H), 1.44 (s, 36H), 1.57 (s, 18H), 7.66–7.72 (m, 4H), 7.82 (t, 1H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 7.85, 8.37 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.09 (d, 8H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.12 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 8.17 (d, 2H, ⁴J=2.2 Hz), 8.17 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 8.71 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 8.72 (d, 2H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.02–9.07 (m, 6H), 9.08 (d, 2H, ³J=4.4 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1423.7; FAB-MS obsd 1832.85, calcd exact mass 1832.85 (C₁₁₈H₁₂₈N₁₆OSZn₂); λ_(abs) (toluene) 420, 460, 561 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 626, 660 nm. Zn-13: IR (neat): {tilde over (v)}=2919, 1702, 1561, 1461; ¹H NMR (300.5 MHz, CDCl₃): δ=1.44 (s, 72H), 7.70 (t, 4H, ⁴J=1.5 Hz), 7.85, 8.37 (AA′BB′, 2×4H), 8.09 (d, 8H¹⁴J=1.5 Hz), 8.14 (d, 4H, ³J=4.4 Hz), 8.72 (d, 4H, ³J=51 Hz), 9.03 (d, 4H, ³J=5.1 Hz), 9.05 (d, 4H³J=5.1 Hz); LD-MS obsd 1801.1, 1816.3 [M⁺+15], 1772.9 [M⁺-CO], 1758.9[M⁺-COCH₃], 1715.8 [M⁺-2 COCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 1794.62, calcd exact mass 1794.71 (C₁₁₂H₁₁₄N₈O₂S₂Zn₂); λ_(abs) (toluene) 421, 461, 561 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 626, 659 nm.

Example 4 Synthesis of “Porphyrin-Linker-Thiol” Molecules with Diverse Linkers for Studies of Molecular-Based Information Storage

The attachment of redox-active molecules such as porphyrins to an electroactive surface provides an attractive approach for electrically addressable molecular based information storage. Porphyrins are readily attached to a gold surface via thiol linkers. The rate of electron transfer between the electroactive surface and the porphyrin is one of the key factors that dictates suitability for molecular-based memory storage. This rate depends on the type and length of the linker connecting the thiol unit to the porphyrin. In this example, we the effects of different linkers. We have developed different routes for the preparation of thiol-derivatized porphyrins with various linkers. Three of the linkers contain alkyne groups (S-phenylethynyl, S-phenylethynylphenyl and S-methylphenylethynylphenyl), four have alkyl units (S-methylphenyl, S-ethylphenyl, S-propylphenyl and S-hexyl) and one has four fluorine atoms attached directly to the thiophenyl unit. To facilitate the synthesis of the porphyrins, convenient routes have been developed to a wide range of aldehydes possessing a protected S-acetylthio group. An efficient synthesis of 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene also has been developed. A set of porphyrins each bearing one S-acetyl derivatized linker at one meso position and mesityl moieties at the three remaining meso positions has been synthesized. Altogether seven new aldehydes, eight free base porphyrins and eight zinc porphyrins have been prepared. The zinc porphyrins bearing the different linkers all form self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold via in situ cleavage of the S-acetyl protecting group. The SAM of each of the porphyrins is electrochemically robust and exhibits two reversible oxidation waves.

This example describes thiol-derivatized porphyrins containing diverse linkers designed to explore how the linker affects the rates of writing and reading as well as duration of information storage (i.e., memory persistence). The studies reported here from the methods described above for the synthesis of thiol-derivatized porphyrin monomers for studies of molecular-based information storage. In various embodiments of this work, porphyrins bearing one thiol group were designed for vertical organization on a gold surface, while porphyrins bearing two or four thiol groups were designed for horizontal arrangement on a gold surface. The redox potentials were tuned through variation in the meso substituents and/or the central metal. The different meso substituents can also give rise to altered packing patterns of the molecules in a self-assembled monolayer (SAM). Thiol protecting groups were examined for compatibility with the reactions for porphyrin-formation, metal insertion, Pd-coupling to form multiporphyrin arrays, and in situ deprotection on a gold surface. The S-acetylthio protecting group gave the best overall results (including in situ cleavage on gold) and has been used in almost all of our subsequent work.

The synthetic methodology described above is used herein to prepare a set porphyrins, each bearing one thioacetate group and three mesityl groups. These molecules are designed for vertical organization on a gold surface. One prototypical example, incorporates a thiol-derivatized p-phenylene unit (linker A, FIG. 34). This molecule binds to a gold electrode and exhibits facile electronic communication with the gold surface. The p,p′-diphenylethyne unit (linker B, FIG. 34) increases the distance of the porphyrin from the gold surface, potentially slowing writing/reading rates, though linkers of this type are known to provide efficient hole transport (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116: 10578–10592; Seth (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11194–11207). A similar structure with one additional methylene unit (linker C, FIG. 34) provides a test of whether a conjugated connection (e.g., a direct thiophenyl attachment) is essential. An electron-deficient p-phenylene linker is provided by linker D (FIG. 34). The effects of a progressive increase in the alkyl character of the linker can be examined by comparison of linkers A, E, F, G and H (FIG. 34). Finally, an ethynylphenyl linker (I) is employed to achieve direct conjugation to the porphyrin (Anderson (1994) Inorg. Chem., 33: 972–9811; Lin (1994) J. Science, 264, 1105–1111). The use of these porphyrins as memory storage entities will be reported elsewhere.

Results and Discussion

A large number of porphyrin monomers bearing free thiols or S-acetyl derivatized thiols have been prepared. The traditional method of synthesis involves the derivatization of a substituted porphyrin with a thiol reagent or protected thiol unit. The emergence of mild conditions for preparing porphyrins has made possible those strategies where sensitive or elaborate substituents are incorporated in the aldehyde precursor to the porphyrin (Lindsey (2000) In The Porphyrin Handbook; Kadish, K. M.; Smith, K. M.; Guilard, R., Eds.; Academic Press, San Diego, Calif., Vol. 1, pp 45–118; Lindsey (1997) In Modular Chemistry, Michl, J. Ed., NATO ASI Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Vol. 499, Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, pp. 517–528, Lindsey (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941–8968; Ravikanth (1998) Tetrahedron, 54: 7721–7734). This latter approach has been explored using S-acetyl protected thio-derivatized benzaldehydes, which are converted to the respective porphyrin with the protecting group intact (Nishimura (1999) J. Electroanal. Chem., 473: 75–84; Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64, 8635–8647; Kuroda (1989) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 111: 1912–1913; Jagessar and Tour (2000) Org. Lett., 2: 111–113). The advantages of introducing the S-acetylthio moiety at the aldehyde stage are as follows. (1) Synthetic manipulation of the porphyrins is minimized. (2) The polarity imparted by the S-acetylthio moiety facilitates separation of the desired porphyrin from a mixed aldehyde condensation. (3) Purification at the aldehyde stage is often more straightforward than separation of porphyrin mixtures. For those molecules where the linker is constructed using a Pd coupling reaction (e.g. diphenylethyne), the reaction conditions for use with aldehydes (high concentration, inclusion of CuI) afford superior results compared with those with porphyrins (Wagner et al. (1999) Chem. Mater., 11: 2974–2983). Thus we have opted to introduce the S-acetyl protected thiol unit at the aldehyde stage throughout this work.

Synthesis of Aldehydes.

The synthesis of aldehydes possessing a thioacetate group utilized several different approaches. Five of the aldehydes possess an alkyl thiol unit and three contain an aryl thiol unit. The former are usually obtained by straightforward reaction of an alkyl halide and a thiol reagent (thioacetate, thiourea), while the latter (S-protected or free thiol form) are often obtained with more difficulty. The few known methods for preparing aryl thiols, from aryl sulfides or aryl halides, generally require harsh conditions. Thus, we searched for new approaches for incorporating the S-acetyl group in arenes. The S-acetyl group is compatible with a variety of reaction conditions, including those in porphyrin formation and Pd-mediated iodo-ethyne couplings (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64, 8635–8647), but is labile in the presence of bases (e.g., NEt₃, alumina) if attached to an arene.

The structures of aldehydes 4 and 8 (FIG. 38 and FIG. 39, respectively) suggested an obvious method of synthesis via Pd-coupling of 4-iodobenzaldehyde with 1-[4(S-acetylthio)phenyl]acetylene (3) or 1-[4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]acetylene (7). The synthesis of compound 3 utilizes 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene 1 (Scheme 1, FIG. 40). We found the previously reported procedures (Pearson and Tour (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376–1387; Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 4525–4528) of this starting material to require tedious purification. In searching for a more efficient pathway to this key molecule, the selective transformation of 1-fluoro-4-iodobenzene into 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene using conditions developed by Tiecco and coworkers (Tiecco et al. (1982) Synthesis, 478–480; Testaferri et al. (1983) Synthesis, 751–755) was attempted. However, we obtained an inseparable mixture of products, regardless of the temperature and the amount of MeSNa used. Sita and coworkers converted pipsyl chloride (4-iodobenzenesulfonyl chloride) to 1-iodo-4-mercaptobenzene (Hsung et al. (1995) Organometallics, 14: 4808–4815). We adopted this attractive route but with the use of the non-aqueous conditions for reduction of sulfonyl chlorides recently reported by Uchiro and Kobayashi (Uchiro and Kobayashi (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 3179–3182), thereby obtaining a much higher yield. Thus, pipsyl chloride was successfully reduced to 1-iodo-4-mercaptobenzene which upon in situ treatment with acetyl chloride gave the desired 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene (1, 85%) after straightforward chromatographic purification (Scheme 1, FIG. 40). The zinc chloride formed in the first step is a likely catalyst of the acylation in the second step. The iodobenzene 1 obtained in this manner was successfully converted into the ethyne derivative 3 using established procedures (Pearson and Tour (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376–1387; Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 4525–4528). Pd-coupling of 3 and 4-iodobenzaldehyde smoothly afforded aldehyde 4 in 90% yield. As noted by Sita and coworkers (Hsung et al. (1995) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 4525–4528), it is essential to use a hindered amine such as N,N-diisopropylethylamine instead of triethylamine to obtain satisfactory yields in all Pd-coupling reactions involving the S-acetylthiophenyl group.

The synthesis of aldehyde 8 proceeded along a similar strategy (Scheme 2, FIG. 41). Treatment of 4-(bromomethyl)-1-iodobenzene with thioacetate under very mild conditions (Zheng et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 603–606) gave 5, which upon Pd-coupling with trimethylsilylacetylene afforded the building block bearing two protecting groups (6). Deprotection of the TMS group in 6 gave 7, which upon Pd-mediated coupling with 4-iodobenzaldehyde furnished aldehyde 8. Each reaction in this sequence afforded high yields.

The next target aldehyde was 4-(S-acetylthio)-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzaldehyde (9) (FIG. 35). The fluorine atom in the para position of pentafluorobenzenes is known to be very reactive toward nucleophilic substitution. Indeed, pentafluorophenyl-substituted porphyrins were recently reported to undergo fluoro-substitution by alkyl thiols (Shaw et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 1595–1596; Shaw et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 7585–7586). This result encouraged us to attempt a similar substitution of pentafluorobenzaldehyde with thioacetate using conditions resembling those used in the reaction of potassium thioacetate with benzyl halides. After a vigorous reaction we found that the substrate had vanished, and the only product was a very polar substance which bound at the origin of TLC (silica, CH₂Cl₂). We surmised that the latter molecule might be the anion of 4-mercapto-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzaldehyde (formed by thioester cleavage following nucleophilic substitution), and upon treatment with acetyl chloride the desired aldehyde 9 was obtained in 69% yield after chromatography.

The synthesis of aldehyde 10 was accomplished using the strategy described herein 3-(S-acetylthiomethyl)benzaldehyde and also described in Gryko et al. (199) J. Org. Chem. 64: 8635–8647. Reduction of the commercially available 4-(bromo-methyl)benzonitrile with DIBALH gave the corresponding 4-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde (Wen and Schlenoff (1997) Am. Chem. Soc. 119: 7726–7733; Bookser and Bruice (1991) Am. Chem. Soc. 113: 4208–4218; Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron 53: 6755–6790 for the synthesis of 3-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde). Substitution of the bromide with potassium thioacetate gave the desired S-acetyl protected thiobenzaldehyde 10 in good yield (FIG. 36).

Aldehyde 11 was synthesized by radical addition (Lub et al. (1997) Liebigs Ann. Recueil, 2281–2288) of thioacetic acid to 4-vinylbenzaldehyde. Vinyl benzaldehyde was synthesized by the procedure of Ren et al. (1993) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 66: 1897–1902 with the following changes: The addition of DMF was performed at a 38 mmol scale at 0° C. Purification by column chromatography (silica, Et₂O/hexanes, 1:3) afforded 4-vinylbenzaldehyde in 60% yield (FIG. 37).

The homologous aldehyde 15 with a propyl rather than ethyl unit was synthesized starting from 4-bromobenzaldehyde (Scheme 3, FIG. 42). Protection of the carbonyl group as the cyclic acetal 12 (Hewlins et al. (1986) J. Chem. Res. (M), 8: 2645–2696), conversion to the corresponding Grignard reagent and in situ reaction with allyl bromide furnished intermediate 13. Radical addition with thioacetic acid afforded acetal 14, which was easily hydrolyzed to the respective aldehyde 15 (overall yield 18% from 4-bromobenzaldehyde).

The aliphatic aldehyde 17 should be accessible via the same procedure as used for aldehyde 10. However, reduction of 7-bromoheptanitrile with 1 eq of DIBALH gave only ˜50% conversion to aldehyde 16, probably due to competing deprotonation of the protons α- to the nitrile group. Therefore we chose to synthesize 16 by oxidation of 7-bromo-1-heptanol with PCC (Enders and Bartzen (1991) Liebigs Ann. Chem, 569–574). Treatment of crude aldehyde 16 with potassium thioacetate afforded aldehyde 17 as a yellow oil in 51% yield (overall yield 42% from 7-bromo-1-heptanol) (FIG. 38).

The shortest and most promising strategy for the synthesis of porphyrin 26 involves the preparation of 3-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]propynal followed by mixed-aldehyde condensation, rather than attempting the Pd-mediated coupling of an iodo or ethynyl porphyrin. Due to the instability of propynal, we performed a Pd-coupling of commercially available propiolaldehyde diethylacetal with 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene (1) (FIG. 39). The desired acetal 18 was obtained in 62% yield.

It is noteworthy that in each strategy employed, the S-acetyl protecting group and the sulfur atom were incorporated in one step, or the thiol was protected in situ with an acetyl group without workup and purification. In so doing the handling of free thiols was avoided while working with a wide range of thiol-derivatized compounds.

Synthesis of Porphyrins.

The investigation of porphyrins oriented in a vertical manner on an electroactive surface can be achieved by the synthesis of porphyrins bearing a p-thioaryl or ω-thioalkyl unit at one meso position. Such A₃B-porphyrins were prepared using a two-step, one-flask synthesis of facially-encumbered meso-substituted porphyrins that is compatible with diverse ortho-disubstituted benzaldehydes (Lindsey and Wagner (1989) J. Org. Chem., 54: 828–836). A mixed-aldehyde condensation of mesitaldehyde, a thiol-protected aldehyde and pyrrole afforded a mixture of porphyrins, from which the desired thiol-protected A₃B-porphyrin was obtained by chromatography. The polarity imparted by the thioacetate group enabled facile separation of the mixture of porphyrins.

In this manner, aldehydes 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 and 17 were converted to the thiol-protected A₃B-porphyrins 19–25, respectively, in yields of 7–22% (Scheme 4, FIG. 43). It is noteworthy that purification of most of the porphyrins was achieved by silica pad filtration followed by one column chromatography (or centrifugal preparative TLC) operation. This same approach was applied to acetal 18 but the yield of the desired A₃B porphyrin was only 0.8% (Scheme 5, FIG. 44). We attribute the low yield in part to the competitive Michael reaction of pyrrole and the activated alkyne. The corresponding zinc chelates Zn-19–Zn-26 were obtained by reaction of the free base porphyrins 19–26 with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (Chart 1). In each case, zinc insertion occurred without altering the thiol protecting groups.

Electrochemical Studies.

The electrochemical behavior of the Zn porphyrins was investigated for samples both in solution and self-assembled on gold. The solution electrochemistry of each of the porphyrins is similar to that previously reported for other aryl-substituted Zn porphyrins.² In particular, each porphyrin exhibits two reversible oxidation waves. The E_(1/2) values for all the porphyrins in solution are similar to one another (E_(1/2)(1) ˜0.58 V; E_(1/2)(2)˜0.86 V; versus Ag/Ag⁺; E_(1/2) FeCp₂/FeCp₂ ⁺=0.19 V), with the exception of Zn-21 and Zn-26. The E_(1/2) values for Zn-21 are shifted ˜0.1 V more positive due to fluorination of one of the porphyrin aryl groups. The E_(1/2) values for Zn-26 are shifted ˜0.1 V more negative due to the presence of the conjugating meso-alkynyl group. The porphyrins bearing the different linkers all form self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold via in situ cleavage of the S-acetyl protecting group. The SAM of each of the porphyrins is electrochemically robust and exhibits two reversible oxidation waves. The two oxidation waves of the Zn porphyrin SAMs were well resolved, as is the case for the Zn porphyrins in solution. However, the two E_(1/2) values of the Zn-20 and Zn-23 SAM are each shifted ˜0.10–0.15 V more positive than those observed in solution. This same behavior is observed for the SAMs of the other Zn porphyrins. The positive shifts in redox potentials observed upon formation of the porphyrin SAMs are consistence with the results of previous experiments on other electroactive species (e.g., thiol-derivatized ferrocenes) on gold (Creager and Rowe (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem. 370: 203–211).

Conclusions

The introduction of an S-acetyl protected thiol unit in an aldehyde enables the corresponding porphyrin to be prepared without handling free porphyrin thiols. The combination of a few simple strategies provided access to a broad range of thiol-derivatized aldehydes. A set of porphyrins has been prepared for vertical organization via one linker on an electroactive surface. The S-acetyl protecting group cleaves in situ when the porphyrin contacts a gold surface. The porphyrins form SAMs that exhibit robust, reversible electrochemistry. Collectively, the studies indicated that all of the linker architectures examined are suitable candidates for molecular information storage elements.

Experimental.

General.

All chemicals obtained commercially were used as received unless otherwise noted. Reagent grade solvents (CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃, hexanes, Et₂O, acetone) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher. Pyrrole was distilled from CaH₂. All reported NMR spectra were collected in CDC1 ₃ (¹H NMR at 300 MHz; ¹³C NMR at 75 MHz) unless noted otherwise. UV-Vis absorption and fluorescence spectra were recorded in CH₂Cl₂ or toluene as described previously.⁵⁴ Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200–400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80–200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desorption (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix,⁵⁵ fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the porphyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS). ACS grade chloroform containing 0.75% of ethanol was used in all porphyrin forming reactions. Porphyrin metalation was monitored by fluorescence emission and excitation spectroscopy. 4-Iodobenzaldehyde and 1-bromomethyl-4-iodobenzene were obtained from Karl Industries, Ltd.

1-Iodo-4(S-acetylthio)benzene (1)

Following a general procedure (Uchiro and Kobayashi (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 3179–3182), to a stirred suspension of zinc powder (3.80 g, 58.0 mmol) and dichlorodimethylsilane (7.00 mL, 58.0 mmol) in 1,2-dichloroethane (126 mL) was added a solution of 4-iodobenzenesulfonyl chloride (5.00 g, 16.5 mmol) and N,N-dimethylacetamide (4.60 mL, 50.0 mmol) in dichloroethane (126 mL). The mixture was stirred at 75° C. for 2 h until the zinc powder was no longer visible. The reaction mixture was cooled to 50° C. and acetyl chloride (1.53 mL, 21.5 mmol) was added. After 15 min the mixture was poured into water. The water layer was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ and the combined organic layers were dried (Na₂SO₄), filtered and evaporated. The colorless oil thus obtained was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:4) affording a colorless oil (3.93 g, 85.0%) which solidified at −20° C. mp 56–57° C. (lit. 54–55° C.)⁴³; ¹H NMR δ 2.42 (s, 3H), 7.12, 7.73 (AA′BB′, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 31.0, 96.7, 128.4, 136.7, 139.0, 193.9; Anal. Calcd. for C₈H₇IOS: C, 34.55; H, 2.54; I, 45.63; S, 11.53; Found: C, 34.69; H, 2.59; I, 45.52; S, 11.59.

2-(4-Formylphenyl)-1-[4(S-acetylthio)phenyl]acetylene (4)

Samples of 4-iodo-benzaldehyde (660 mg, 2.80 mmol), 3 (500 mg, 2.80 mmol), CuI (29 mg, 15 μmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (13 mg, 18 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated for 3 min then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (5.0 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40° C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then filtered and evaporated. The resulting orange-brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 2:3, then 1:1, then 3:2) to afford yellowish-white crystals, which upon recrystallization (ethyl acetate/heptane) afforded 707 mg (90.2%) of white crystals. mp 128–129° C. (lit. 122–123° C.)³⁶; ¹H NMR δ 2.65 (s, 3H), 7.63, 7.79 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.87, 8.07 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 10.22 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR δ 31.2, 91.0, 93.5, 124.5, 129.9, 130.0, 130.5, 133.1, 133.2, 135.2, 136.5, 192.3, 194.1; FAB-MS obsd 280.0551, calcd exact mass 280.0558; Anal. Calcd. for C₁₇H₁₂O₂S: C, 72.83; H, 4.31; S, 11.44; Found: C, 72.66; H, 4.39; S, 11.52.

1-Iodo-4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)benzene (5)

Following a general procedure (Zheng et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 603–606), potassium thioacetate (2.20 g, 19.3 mmol) was added to a solution of 4-(bromomethyl)-1-iodobenzene (4.80 g, 16.2 mmol) in anhydrous N,N-dimethylacetamide (15 mL). The mixture was stirred overnight at rt, poured into water, and extracted with CH₂Cl₂. The combined organic extracts were washed with water, dried (Na₂SO₄) and evaporated. The resulting brown oil was distilled (90° C., 0.005 mmHg) to obtain a pale-yellow solid which solidified after a few days (4.68 g, 99%). mp 40–41° C.; ¹H NMR δ 2.37 (s, 3H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 7.07, 7.64 (AA′BB′, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 31.09, 33.6, 93.5, 131.6, 138.2, 138.4, 195.5; FAB-MS obsd 291.9425, calcd exact mass 291.9419; Anal. Calcd. for C₉H₉IOS: C, 37.00; H, 3.11; I, 43.44; S, 10.98; Found: C, 37.39; H, 3.13; 1,43.04; S, 11.26.

1-[4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)phenyl)1-2-(trimethylsilyl)acetylene (6)

Samples of 5 (2.92 g, 10.0 mmol), CuI (105 mg, 553 μmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (46 mg, 66 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated for 3 min and then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (10.0 mL) and DIEA (10.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. Next trimethylsilylacetylene (2.00 ml, 14.0 mmol) was added. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40° C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then filtered and evaporated. The resulting orange-brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:4, then 3:7) to afford a slightly yellow oil which solidified upon standing at rt (2.40 g, 91.8%). mp 41–42° C.; ¹H NMR δ 0.23 (s, 9H), 2.32 (s, 3H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 7.21, 7.36 (AA′BB′, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 0.7, 31.0, 33.9, 95.1, 105.5, 122.8, 129.4, 132.8, 138.9, 195.4; FAB-MS obsd 262.0839, calcd exact mass 262.0848; Anal. Calcd. for C₁₄H₁₈SiOS: C, 64.07; H, 6.91; S, 12.22; Found: C, 64.02; H, 6.99; S, 12.23.

1-[4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]acetylene (7)

To a solution of 6 (2.52 g, 9.60 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added acetic acid (0.2 mL) and acetic anhydride (0.2 mL). The mixture was cooled to −20° C. and a solution of Bu₄NF (2.40 g, 9.60 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added dropwise during 5 min. The reaction mixture was kept at −20° C. for another 10 min then poured on a silica pad and eluted with CH₂Cl₂/hexanes (1:1). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂, dried (Na₂SO₄) and evaporated, affording a yellowish oil (1.69 g, 92.3%). ¹H NMR δ 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.88 (s, 1H), 3.88 (s, 2H), 7.02, 7.20 (AA′BB′, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 30.8, 33.6, 83.8, 121.5, 129.3, 132.8, 139.0, 195.3; EI-MS obsd 190.0458, calcd exact mass 190.0452 (C₁₁H₁₀OS).

2-(4-Formylphenyl)-1-[4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl)acetylene (8)

Samples of 4-iodobenzaldehyde (1.18 g, 5.00 mmol), 7 (950 mg, 5.00 mmol), CuI (52 mg, 270 μmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (23 mg, 33 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated via vacuum pump for 3 min and then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (5.0 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40° C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then filtered and evaporated. The resulting orange-brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 2:3, then 1:1, then 3:2) to afford yellowish-white crystals. Recrystallization (ethyl acetate/heptane) gave 1.30 g (88.2%) of white crystals. mp 128–129° C.; ¹H NMR δ 2.49 (s, 3H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 7.25, 7.43 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.59, 7.79 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 9.95 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR δ 30.9, 33.9, 89.5, 93.9, 122.1, 129.8, 130.1, 130.2, 132.7, 132.7, 136.1, 139.5, 192.0, 195.4; FAB-MS obsd 294.0717, calcd exact mass 294.0715; Anal. Calcd. for C₁₈H₁₄O₂S: C, 73.44; H, 4.79; S, 10.89; Found: C, 73.18; H, 4.82; S, 10.88.

2,3,5,6-Tetrafluoro-4-(5-acetylthio)benzaldehyde (9)

Potassium thioacetate (1.28 g, 11.2 mmol) was added to a solution of pentafluorobenzaldehyde (1.24 mL, 10.2 mmol) in anhydrous DMA (20 mL). After a strong exotherm subsided, the mixture was stirred at rt for 30 min. Acetyl chloride (1.60 mL, 22.4 mmol) was added and the mixture was stirred for another 30 min, then poured into water and extracted twice with ethyl ether. The combined organic extracts were dried (Na₂SO₄) and evaporated to obtain an orange oil which was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 2:3) affording a pale-yellow solid. Recrystallization from heptane gave white crystals (1.77 g, 69%). mp 86–87° C.; ¹H NMR δ 2.53 (s, 3H), 10.30 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR δ 30.9, 115.5, 117.2, 145.3, 148.7, 182.9, 187.9; FAB-MS obsd252.9936, calcd exact mass 252.9946; Anal. Calcd. for C₉H₄F₄O₂S: C, 42.86; H, 1.60; S, 12.72; Found: C, 43.00; H, 1.71; S, 12.67.

4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)benzaldehyde (10)

To a solution of 4-(bromomethyl)-benzaldehyde (Hsung et al. (1995) Organometallics, 14: 4808–4815; Bookser and Bruice (1991) Am. Chem. Soc. 113: 4208–4218; Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron 53: 6755–6790 for the synthesis of 3-(bromomethyl)benzaldehyde) (0.43 g, 2.2 mmol) in acetone (10 mL) was added potassium thioacetate (280 mg, 2.5 mmol) under stirring at rt, then the mixture was refluxed. A precipitate formed after a few minutes. The reaction was monitored by TLC and cooled to rt when no starting material was detectable (3.5 h). Water (25 mL) was added, the mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate (3×30 mL), and the combined organic phases were dried (Na₂SO₄) and evaporated. Column chromatography over flash silica gel (ethyl ether/hexanes, 1:1) gave 359 mg (85% yield) of a brown oil which darkened upon standing (nonetheless elementary analysis four weeks after exposure to air at rt indicated a high level of purity as listed below). IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3052, 2923, 2830, 2737, 1694, 1606, 1576; ¹H NMR δ 2.36 (s, 3H), 4.15 (s, 2H), 7.45, 7.81 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 9.97 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR (APT) δ 30.1 (−), 32.9 (+), 129.3 (−), 129.9 (−), 135.2 (+), 144.7 (+), 191.5 (−), 194.3 (+); GC-MS (EI) obsd 194, 152, 119, 91, 43; Anal. Calcd for C₁₀H₁₀O₂S: C, 61.83; H, 5.19; S, 16.51; Found: C, 61.97; H, 5.20; S, 16.60.

4-[2-(S-Acetylthio)ethyl]benzaldehyde (11)

Following a general procedure (Lub et al. (1997) Liebigs Ann. Recueil, 2281–2288), 4-vinylbenzaldehyde (Vinyl benzaldehyde was synthesized by the procedure of Ren et al. (1993) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 66: 1897–1902 with the following changes: The addition of DMF was performed at a 38 mmol scale at 0° C. Purification by column chromatography (silica, Et₂O/hexanes, 1:3) afforded 4-vinylbenzaldehyde in 60% yield.) (1.15 g, 8.70 mmol) and thioacetic acid (2.20 mL, 30.8 mmol) were dissolved in toluene (20 mL) and the solution was purged with argon for 15 min. Then AIBN (20 mg) was added and the mixture was heated to 90° C. After 2 h more AIBN (160 mg) was added. This was repeated after one additional hour. 2 h later AIBN (100 mg) was added again and the mixture was heated for one additional hour. Then aq NaHCO₃ (10%, 50 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The aqueous phase was washed with ether and the combined organic phases were dried (Na₂SO₄). Purification by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1:3) gave an orange oil, which solidified and darkened upon standing at −20° C. to give a black solid (983 mg, 54%), which was pure enough for further reactions. A small sample was recrystallized from refluxing heptane to afford colorless plates. mp 35° C.; IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3029, 2929, 2828, 2737, 1699, 1606, 1578; ¹H NMR δ 2.34 (s, 3H), 2.96 (t, ³J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 3.15 (t, ³J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.40, 7.83 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 9.99 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR (APT) δ 30.5 (+), 31.3(−), 36.5 (+), 129.0 (−), 129.7 (−), 134.7 (+), 146.8 (+), 191.5 (−), 194.9 (+); GC-MS (EI) obsd 208, 166, 133, 120, 91, 77, 43; Anal. Calcd for C₁₁H₁₂O₂S: C, 63.43; H, 5.81; S, 15.40; Found: C, 63.63; H, 5.90; S, 15.62.

2-(4-Bromophenyl)-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (12)

The following describes an improved procedure at three times larger scale in much shorter time compared with the literature (Hewlins et al. (1986) J. Chem. Res. (M), 8: 2645–2696). 4-Bromobenzaldehyde (3.00 g, 16.2 mmol), neopentylglycol (1.86 g, 17.9 mmol) and p-toluenesulfonic acid (50 mg, 0.3 mmol) were dissolved in toluene (30 mL) and the solution was refluxed for 3 h. Then the solution was cooled to rt, washed twice with aq NaHCO₃ (10%), twice with water and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvent was evaporated and the oily residue was crystallized from hexanes, affording colorless needles (2.81 g, 64%). ¹³C NMR (APT) δ 21.7 (−), 22.9 (−), 30.1 (+), 77.5 (+), 100.8 (−), 122.7 (+), 127.8 (−), 131.3 (−), 137.5 ((+)).

2-(4-Allylphenyl)-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (13)

In a dry apparatus a solution of 12 (2.05 g, 7.60 mmol) in THF (15 mL) was added dropwise to magnesium powder (0.22 g, 9.1 mmol) under argon. After the addition was completed the mixture was refluxed for 45 min. Then the mixture was cooled to rt and allyl bromide (720 μL, 8.30 mmol) dissolved in THF (10 mL) was added slowly. The mixture was stirred for 4.5 h, then quenched with satd aq NH₄Cl (25 mL) and extracted with ether. The combined organic phases were washed with aq NaHCO₃ (5%) and brine and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the residue was crystallized from hexanes and filtered. The filtrate was purified by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1:4), affording a light yellow oil (1.04 g, 59%). IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3077, 2955, 2904, 2846, 1639, 1619, 1517; ¹H NMR δ 0.79 (s, 3H), 1.29 (s, 3H), 3.38 (d, ³J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 3.64 (d, ²J=11.0 Hz, 2H), 3.76 (d, ²J=11.0 Hz, 2H), 5.00–5.10 (m, 2H), 5.37 (s, 1H), 5.86–6.01 (m, 1H), 7.19, 7.43 (AA′BB′, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR (APT) δ 21.7 (−), 22.9 (−), 30.0 (+), 39.8 (+), 77.5 (+), 101.5 (−), 115.6 (+), 126.1 (−), 128.4 (−), 136.3 (+), 137.2 (−), 140.5 (+); GC-MS (EI) obsd 232, 231, 191, 163, 145, 115, 105, 91, 69, 56, 41; Anal. Calcd for C₁₅H₂₀O₂: C, 77.55; H, 8.68; Found: C, 77.52; H, 8.77.

2-{4-[3-(S-Acetylthio)propyl]phenyl}-5,5-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane (14)

Following a general procedure (Lub et al. (1997) Liebigs Ann. Recueil, 2281–2288), 13 (845 mg, 3.60 mmol) and thioacetic acid (910 μL, 12.7 mmol) were dissolved in toluene (20 mL) and the solution was purged with argon for 15 min. Then AIBN (200 mg) was added and the mixture was heated to 90° C. Over a period of 23 h more AIBN (1.10 g) was added in several portions. Then aq NaHCO₃ (10%, 50 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The aqueous phase was washed with ether and the combined organic phases were dried (Na₂SO₄). Purification by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1:4) gave an orange oil, which solidified upon standing at −20° C. and was recrystallized from pentane to give 708 mg (63%) of colorless needles. mp 44° C. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 2951, 2850, 1692, 1620, 1518; ¹H NMR δ 0.79 (s, 3H), 1.29 (s, 3H), 1.78–1.94 (m, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.68 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.86 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.64 (d, ²J=1.0 Hz, 2H), 3.76 (d, ²J=11.0 Hz, 2H), 5.37 (s, 1H), 7.18, 7.42 (AA′BB′, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR (APT) δ 21.6 (−), 22.8 (−), 28.1 (+), 29.9 (+), 30.4 (−), 30.8 (+), 34.3 (+), 77.3 (+), 101.4 (−), 126.0 (−), 128.1 (−), 136.1 (+), 141.5 (+), 195.3 (+); GC-MS (EI) obsd 308, 307, 265, 232, 221, 204, 199, 180, 146, 133, 115, 91, 69, 43; Anal. Calcd for C₁₇H₂₄O₃S: C, 66.20; H, 7.84; S, 10.40; Found: C, 66.19; H, 7.89; S, 10.54.

4-[3-(S-Acetylthio)propyl]benzaldehyde (15)

Compound 14 (525 mg, 1.70 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (10 mL) and TFA (2.0 mL) was added together with a drop of water. The solution was stirred for 15 h at rt. Then aq NaHCO₃ (5%, 35 mL) was added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed twice with aq NaHCO₃ (5%), once with brine and dried (Na₂SO₄). The solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the oily residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, ether/hexanes, 1:2), affording a yellow oil (279 mg, 74%). IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3037, 2928, 2849, 2731, 1693, 1605; ¹H NMR δ 1.88–1.99 (m, 2H), 2.35 (s, 3H), 2.78 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 2.89 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 7.35, 7.81 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 9.98 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR (APT) δ 28.1 (+), 30.4 (+), 34.7 (+), 128.8 (−), 129.7 (−), 134.4 (+), 148.3 (+), 191.6 (−), 195.2 (+); GC-MS (EI) obsd 222, 180, 146, 133, 117, 105, 91, 43.

7-(S-Acetylthio)heptanal (17)

To a solution of crude 7-bromoheptanal (Enders and Bartzen (1991) Liebigs Ann. Chem, 569–574) (3.32 g, 17.2 mmol) in acetone (50 mL) was added potassium thioacetate (2.36 g, 21 mmol) under stirring at rt. Then the mixture was refluxed, yielding a precipitate after a few minutes. The reaction was monitored by TLC and cooled to rt when no starting material was detectable (4 h). Water (50 mL) was added, the mixture was extracted with ethyl ether until the organic phase was colorless, and the combined organic phases were dried (Na₂SO₄) and evaporated. Distillation at 98° C. with a water suction pump afforded 1.66 g (51%, 42% from 7-bromoheptanol) of a yellow oil. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 2938, 2857, 2721, 1725, 1694; ¹H NMR δ 1.28–1.43 (m, 4H), 1.53–1.69 (m, 4H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.43 (dt, ³J=7.3 Hz, ³J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 2.86 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 9.77 (t, ³J=1.5 Hz, 1H); ¹³C NMR (APT) δ 21.6 (+), 28.1 (+), 28.3 (+), 28.6 (+), 29.0 (+), 30.3 (−), 43.3 (+), 195.4 (+), 202.0 (−); GC-MS (EI) obsd 188, 187, 145, 128, 112, 94, 43.

1-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]-2-(diethoxymethyl)acetylene (18)

Samples of 1 (500 mg, 1.80 mmol), CuI (19.0 mg, 100 μmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (8.4 mg, 12 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated via vacuum pump for 3 min and then backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point the argon flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deareated THF (5.0 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gastight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40° C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h and the mixture was evaporated. The resulting orange-brown solid was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1, then 7:3) to afford a yellowish-white oil (319 mg, 63.8%). ¹H NMR δ 1.27 (t, J=6.6 Hz, 6H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 3.5–4.0 (m, 4H), 5.49 (s, 1H), 7.36, 7.50 (AA′BB′, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 15.8, 30.9, 61.7, 85.0, 86.8, 92.4, 123.7, 129.5, 133.1, 134.8, 193.7; FAB-MS obsd 278.0970, calcd exact mass 278.0977; Anal. Calcd. for C₁₅H₁₈O₃S: C, 64.72; H, 6.52; S, 11.52; Found: C, 64.45; H, 6.53; S, 11.34.

5,10,15-trimesityl-20-[4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}phenyl]porphyrin (19)

Following a general procedure for mixed-aldehyde condensations (Lindsey et al (1991) Tetrahedron, 50: 8941–8968; Ravikanth et al (1998) Tetrahedron, 54: 7721–7734) with mesitaldehyde,⁵² aldehyde 4 (204 mg, 0.730 mmol) was added to CHCl₃ (40 mL, containing 0.75% ethanol), followed by mesitaldehyde (0.32 mL, 2.2 mmol), pyrrole (200 μL, 2.92 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (90 μL, 0.71 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at rt for 90 min. Then DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) in THF (10 mL) was added. The resulting mixture was stirred at rt for 1 h and then passed over a short silica column (CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1) affording porphyrins free from dark pigments and quinone species. The mixture of porphyrins was purified by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 5:7). The title porphyrin eluted as the second purple band, affording 78 mg (12%). ¹H NMR δ 2.40 (s, 2H), 1.99 (s, 18H), 2.57 (s, 3H), 2.73 (s, 9H), 7.40 (s, 6H), 7.58, 7.61 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.04, 8.34 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.78 (s, 4H), 8.8–9.0 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 917.2, 932.2 [M⁺+15], 890.0 [M⁺-28], 875.0 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 914.4059, calcd exact mass 914.4018 (C₆₃H₅₄N₄OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 420, 515, 550, 592, 646 nm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]ethynyl}phenyl]-porphyrin (20)

Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 8 (214 mg, 0.730 mmol), mesitaldehyde (0.32 mL, mmol), pyrrole (200 μL, 2.92 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (90 μL, 0.71 mmol) were stirred in CHCl₃ (40 mL) for 1.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) in THF (10 mL) for 1 h. Filtration over a silica pad (CH₂Cl₂) followed by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 5:7) gave the title porphyrin as the second purple band, affording 96 mg (14%). ¹H NMR 6–2.53 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.35 (s, 3H), 2.59 (s, 9H), 4.13 (s, 2H), 7.26 (s, 6H), 7.31, 7.59 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.90, 8.19 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.65 (s, 4H), 8.7–8.9 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 932.1, 847.9 [M⁺+15], 903.7 [M⁺-28], 889.5 [M⁺-CH₃CO], 856.3 [M⁺-CH₃COS], 841.4 [M⁺-CH₃COSCH₂] FAB-MS obsd 928.4193, calcd exact mass 928.4175 (C₆₄H₅₆N₄OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 420, 515, 548, 592, 648 nm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[2,3,5,6-tetranuoro-4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]porphyrin (21)

Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 9 (184 mg, 0.730 mmol), mesitaldehyde (0.32 mL, 2.2 mmol), pyrrole (200 μL, 2.92 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (90 μL, 0.71 mmol) were stirred in CHCl₃ (40 mL) for 1.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (500 mg, 2.20 mmol) in THF (10 mL) for 1 h. Filtration over a silica pad (CH₂Cl₂) followed by preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:4) gave the title porphyrin as the second purple band, affording 46 mg (7.1%). ¹H NMR (THF-d₈) δ−2.51 (s, 2H), 1.83 (s, 18H), 2.61 (s, 9H), 2.67 (s, 3H), 7.29 (s, 6H), 8.8–9.0 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 887.2, 902.2 [M⁺+15], 859.0 [M⁺-28], 845.0 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 886.3364, calcd exact mass 886.3328 (C₅₅H₄₆F₄N₄OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 418, 513, 546, 588, 644 nn.

5-[4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (22)

Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 10 (148 mg, 0.8 mmol), mesitaldehyde (337 μL, 2.3 mmol), pyrrole (211 μL, 3.0 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (94 μL, 0.70 mmol) were stirred in CHCl₃ (125 mL) for 3 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (519 mg, 2.3 mmol) for 1 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH₂Cl₂) followed by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:3–1:1). The title compound eluted as the second purple band, affording 118 mg (19%) as a purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3318, 2921, 2861, 1695, 1608, 1561; ¹H NMR δ−2.58 (s, 2H), 1.84 (s, 12H), 1.85 (s, 6H, 2.50 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 4.46 (s, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.65, 8.12 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.63 (brs, 4H), 8.67 (d, ³J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.77 (d, ³J=5.1 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 844.0 [M⁺+15], 829.0 [M⁺], 786.8 [M⁺-COCH₃], 753.8 [M⁺-SCOCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 828.3892, calcd exact mass 828.3862 (C₅₆H₅₂N₄OS); λ_(abs) (toluene) 420, 515, 548, 592, 649 nm.

5-{4-[2-(S-Acetylthio)ethyl]phenyl}-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (23)

Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 11 (98 mg, 0.5 mmol), mesitaldehyde (208 μL, 1.4 mmol), pyrrole (131 μL, 1.9 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (52 μL, 0.4 mmol) were stirred in CHCl₃ (100 mL) for 3 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (320 mg, 1.4 mmol) for 1.5 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH₂Cl₂) followed by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1–3:2). The title compound comprised the second purple band, affording 69 mg (17%) as a purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3319, 2920, 2861, 1694, 1608, 1561; ¹H NMR δ−2.57 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.45 (s, 3H), 2.62 (s, 9H), 3.21 (t, ³J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 3.37–3.52 (m, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.58, 8.13 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.62 (s, 4H), 8.67 (d, ³J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.77 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 860.4 [M⁺+15], 845.3 [M⁺], 803.1 [M⁺-COCH₃], 769.0 [M⁺-SCOCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 842.4025, calcd exact mass 842.4018 (C₅₇H₅₄N₄OS); λ_(abs) (toluene) 420, 515, 548, 593, 650 nmn.

5-{4-[3-(S-Acetylthio)propyl]phenyl}-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (24)

Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 15 (108 mg, 0.5 mmol), mesitaldehyde (215 μL, 1.5 mmol), pyrrole (135 μL, 1.9 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (54 μL, 0.4 mmol) were stirred in CHCl₃ (100 mL) for 3.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (331 mg, 1.5 mmol) for 1 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH₂Cl₂) followed by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 3:2–2:1). The title compound comprised the second purple band as a purple solid, which was recrystallized from methanol to afford 41 mg (48 μL, 10%) of a purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3322, 3102, 2920, 2852, 1693, 1612, 1559; ¹H NMR: δ−2.56 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.14–2.25 (m, 2H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 2.61 (s, 9H), 3.02 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.37 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.53, 8.11 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.63 (s, 4H), 8.67 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 8.79 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 873.4 [M⁺+15], 858.4 [M⁺], 816.2 [M⁺-COCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 856.4216, calcd exact mass 856.4175 (C₅₈H₅₆N₄OS); λ_(abs) (toluene) 420, 515, 548, 593, 649 nm.

5-[7-(S-Acetylthio)hexyl]-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (25)

Following the general procedure for 19, aldehyde 17 (111 mg, 0.6 mmol), mesitaldehyde (261 μL, 1.8 mmol), pyrrole (164 μL, 2.4 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (65 μL, 0.5 mmol) were stirred in CHCl₃ (100 mL) for 3 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (401 mg, 1.8 mmol) for 1.5 h. The mixture was then filtered through a pad of silica (CH₂Cl₂) followed by two column chromatography procedures (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1–3:2). The title compound eluted as the second purple band and was purified by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 2:1) to afford 105 mg (22%) as a purple solid. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3317, 3107, 2922, 2856, 1691, 1609, 1562; ¹H NMR δ−2.51 (s, 2H), 1.52–1.67 (m, 4H), 1.74–1.89 (m, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.30 (s, 3H), 2.45–2.58 (m, 2H), 2.60 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 6H), 2.88 (t, ³J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 4.98 (t, ³J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (s, 2H), 7.28 (s, 4H), 8.55–8.62 (m, 4H), 8.75 (d, ³J=3.7 Hz, 2H), 8.40 (d, 2H, ³J=3.7 Hz); LD-MS obsd 825.2 [M⁺], 783.0 [M⁺-COCH₃], 679.5 [M⁺-(CH₂)₅SCOCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 822.4355, calcd exact mass 822.4331 (C₅₅H₅₈N₄OS); λ_(abs) (toluene) 419, 516, 549, 594, 652 nm.

5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}porphyrin (26)

Following the general procedure for 19, acetal 18 (100 mg, 0.36 mmol), mesitaldehyde (0.16 mL, mmol), pyrrole (100 μL, 1.46 mmol) and BF₃.OEt₂ (45 μL, 0.35 mmol) were stirred in CHCl₃ (20 mL) for 1.5 h. The resulting mixture was treated with DDQ (250 mg, 1.10 mmol) in THF (5 mL) for 1 h. Filtration over a silica pad (CH₂Cl₂) followed by two subsequent preparative centrifugal chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:3, then 1:1) gave the title porphyrin as the second purple band, affording 2.5 mg (0.83%). ¹H NMR δ−2.14 (s, 2H), 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.50 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 7.25 (s, 6H), 7.60, 8.03 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.54 (s, 4H), 8.73 (m, 2H), 9.63 (m, 2H); LD-MS obsd 841.6, 856.6 [M⁺+15], 813.4 [M⁺-28], 799.4 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 838.3737, calcd exact mass 838.3705 (C₅₇H₅₀N₄OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 436, 534, 576, 611, 668 nm.

General Procedure for Zinc Insertion.

The porphyrin was dissolved in CHCl₃ or CH₂Cl₂ and a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O in methanol was added. The reaction mixture was stirred at rt. After metalation was complete (TLC, fluorescence excitation spectroscopy), the reaction mixture was washed with water and dried (Na₂SO₄), filtered and concentrated to a purple solid. Purification was achieved by column chromatography on silica.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}phenyl]-porphyrin (Zn-19)

A solution of porphyrin 19 (37 mg, 0.040 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1) afforded 35.6 mg (92.0%). ¹H NMR δ 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.48 (s, 3H), 2.64 (s, 9H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.48, 7.72 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.92, 8.23 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.70 (s, 4H), 8.70–8.90 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 979.8, 995.8 [M⁺+15], 953.6 [M⁺-28], 939.6 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 976.3177, calcd exact mass 976.3153 (C₆₃H₅₂N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 422, 550 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]ethynyl]phenyl]porphyrin (Zn-20)

A solution of porphyrin 20 (37 mg, 0.040 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1) afforded 37.7 mg (95.0%). ¹H NMR (THF-d₈) δ 1.86 (s, 18H), 2.34 (s, 3H), 2.60 (s, 9H), 4.18 (s, 2H), 7.29 (s, 6H), 7.38, 7.58 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 7.88, 8.19 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.63 (s, 4H), 8.6–8.8 (m, 4H); LD-MS obsd 992.4, 1008.5 [M⁺+15], 964.4 [M⁺-28], 950.2 [M⁺-CH₃CO], 934.2 [M⁺-58], 918.1 [M⁺-CH₃COS], FAB-MS obsd 990.3280, calcd exact mass 990.3310 (C₆₄H₅₆N₄OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 422, 550 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-[2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]porphyrin (Zn-21)

A solution of porphyrin 21 (35 mg, 0.040 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (880 mg, 4.00 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:4) afforded 31.4 mg (83.3%). ¹H NMR (THF-d₈) δ 1.87 (s, 18H), 2.66 (s, 9H), 2.71 (s, 3H), 7.30 (s, 6H), 8.7–9.0 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 953.5, 967.7 [M⁺+15], 925.4 [M⁺-28], 909.3 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 948.2480, calcd exact mass 948.2463 (C₅₅H₄₄F₄N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 421, 548 nm.

Zn(II)-5-4-(S-Acetylthiomethyl)phenyl]-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn-22)

A solution of porphyrin 22 (54.8 mg, 66.1 μmol) in CHCl₃ (20 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (435 mg, 2.00 mmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 6 h. An excess of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (290 mg, 1.3 mmol) was added because the metalation was not completed. Stirring was continued for another 23 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO₃ (5%). Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1) afforded a purple solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 2922, 2853, 1663; ¹H NMR δ 1.84 (s, 18H), 2.49 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 4.46 (s, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.63, 8.14 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.70 (brs, 4H), 8.74 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.75 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.845 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 8.850 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 1H); LD-MS obsd 906.3 [M⁺+15], 891.3 [M⁺], 849.2 [M⁺-COCH₃], 831.2 [M⁺-4 CH₃], 816.1 [M⁺-SCOCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 890.3035, calcd exact mass 890.2997 (C₅₆H₅₀N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 423, 550 mn; λ_(em) (toluene) 593, 644 nm.

Zn(II)-5-{4-[2-(S-Acetylthio)ethyl}phenyl]-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn-23)

A solution of porphyrin 23 (48 mg, 57 μmol) in CHCl₃ (20 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (1.25 g, 5.70 mmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 17 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO₃ (5%). Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 3:1) afforded a purple solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3096, 2910, 2849, 1646; ¹H NMR δ 1.84 (s, 12H), 1.85 (s, 6H), 2.44 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 3.20 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.38–3.46 (m, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.57, 8.14 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.70 (s, 4H), 8.75 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 8.86 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 920.5 [M⁺+15], 906.4 [M⁺], 864.3 [M⁺-COCH₃], 830.2 [M⁺-SCOCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 904.3121, calcd exact mass 904.3153 (C₅₇H₅₂N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 423, 550 nm; λ_(abs) (toluene) 593, 644 mm.

Zn(II)-5-{4-[3-(S-Acetylthio)propyl]phenyl}-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn-24)

A solution of porphyrin 24 (37.7 mg, 44 μmol) in CHCl₃ (20 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (965 mg, 4.40 mmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 5 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO₃ (5%) and dried (Na₂SO₄). Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 4:1) afforded a purple solid in quantitative yield. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3107, 2919, 2849, 1650; ¹H NMR δ 1.84 (s, 12H), 1.85 (s, 6H), 2.13–2.26 (m, 2H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 2.63 (s, 9H), 3.03 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 3.11 (t, ³J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 7.27 (s, 6H), 7.53, 8.13 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.69 (s, 4H), 8.74 (d, ³J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.86 (d, ³J=5.1 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 937.8 [M⁺+15], 921.8 [M⁺], 879.6 [M⁺-COCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 918.3343, calcd exact mass 918.3310 (C₅₈H₅₄N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 423, 550 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 593, 644 nm.

Zn(II)-5-[7-(S-Acetylthio)hexyl]-10,15,20-trimesitylporphyrin (Zn-25)

A solution of porphyrin 25 (93 mg, 110 μmol) in CHCl₃ (25 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (2.50 g, 11.4 mmol) in MeOH (7 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 18 h. The organic phase was washed with aq NaHCO₃ (5%) and dried (Na₂SO₄). Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 2:1) afforded a purple solid (85 mg) in 85% yield. IR (neat): {tilde over (v)} 3107, 2920, 2849, 1690, 1658, 1608; ¹H NMR δ 1.55–1.67 (m, 4H), 1.78–1.89 (m, 2H), 1.83 (s, 18H), 2.20 (s, 3H), 2.52–2.65 (m, 2H), 2.61 (s, 3H), 2.64 (s, 6H), 2.83 (t, ³J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 5.02 (t, ³J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (s, 2H), 7.28 (s, 4H), 8.64 (d, ³J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.66 (d, ³J=5.1 Hz, 2H), 8.81 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 2H), 9.49 (d, ³J=4.4 Hz, 2H); LD-MS obsd 887.7 (M⁺], 844.5 [M⁺-COCH₃], 742.0 [M⁺-(CH₂)₅SCOCH₃]; FAB-MS obsd 884.3490, calcd exact mass 884.3466 (C₅₅H₅₆N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (toluene) 423, 552 nm; λ_(em) (toluene) 593, 646 nm.

Zn(II)-5,10,15-Trimesityl-20-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}porphyrin (Zn-26)

A solution of porphyrin 26 (2.5 mg, 2.9 μmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (5 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (64 mg, 29 μmol) in MeOH (5 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 16 h. Column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1) afforded 2.4 mg (92%). ¹H NMR δ 1.85 (s, 18H), 2.50 (s, 3H), 2.62 (s, 9H), 7.29 (s, 6H), 7.60, 8.04 (AA′BB′, 2×2H), 8.64 (m, 4H), 8.82 (m, 2H), 9.73 (m, 2H); LD-MS obsd 906.1, 922.1 [M⁺+15], 878.4 [M⁺-28], 862.0 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 900.2825, calcd exact mass 900.2840 (C₅₇H₄₈N₄OSZn); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 440, 566, 611 nm.

Electrochemistry.

The solution electrochemical studies of the Zn porphyrins were performed using techniques and instrumentation previously described (Seth et al. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116: 10578–10592; Seth et al.(1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 11194–11207). The solvent was CH₂Cl₂; tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAH, 0.1 M) (Aldrich, recrystallized three times from methanol and dried under vacuum at 110° C.) served as supporting electrolyte. The potentials reported are vs Ag/Ag⁺; E_(1/2)(FeCp₂/FeCp₂ ⁺)=0.19 V.

The SAM electrochemical studies of the Zn porphyrins were performed on 75-micron wide gold band electrodes formed via E-beam evaporation (to a thickness of 100 nm) onto piranha-solution-etched glass slides that had a 1 nm thick underlayer of chromium. The electrochemical cell was constructed by forming a 3-mm diameter polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) well (˜3 mm deep) over the gold band. The Zn porphyrins were dissolved in absolute ethanol and the solution (˜1 mM) was added to the well and allowed to stand. Deposition times of 30 min were found to give the same quality cyclic voltammograms as those obtained with much longer deposition times (12 h). Subsequent to soaking, the solvent was removed and the PDMS well was rinsed with absolute ethanol followed by a final rise with CH₂Cl₂. A small amount of CH₂Cl₂ containing 1 M TBAH was then added to the PDMS well. Silver and platinum wires were inserted into the well to serve as the reference and counter electrodes, respectively. The cyclic voltammograms were recorded with an Ensman Instruments 400 potentiostat at a rate of 100 V/s.

Example 5 Synthesis of Thiol-Derivatized Ferrocenes and Thiol-Derivatized Ferrocene-Porphyrins for Comparative Studies of Molecular-Based Information Storage

This example describes the systhesis of various ferrocene-porphyrins. Three of the ferrocene-porphyrins have linkers of different length between the ferrocene and porphyrin. The fourth ferrocene-porphyrin has two ferrocenes positioned at the lateral sites on the porphyrin. The latter architecture is designed to provide a shorter distance between the electroactive surface and the ferrocene while maintaining an upright orientation of the porphyrin. Each ferrocene-porphyrin affords three cationic oxidation states (ferrocene monocation, porphyrin monocation, porphyrin dication) in addition to the neutral state thereby affording the capability of storing two bits of information. Each ferrocene or ferrocene-porphyrin bears an S-acetyl or S-(N-ethyl)carbamoyl protected thiol moiety, thereby avoiding handling of free thiols. Each ferrocene-porphyrin forms a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) on gold via in situ cleavage of the thiol protecting group. The SAMs of all arrays are electrochemically robust and exhibit three well-resolved, reversible oxidation waves.

Introduction

We have shown that a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of porphyrins attached to an electroactive surface can be used for molecular-based information storage. The porphyrins are addressed electrically and information is stored in the distinct oxidation states provided by the porphyrins. In principle, multiple bits of information can be stored in a given memory storage location (i.e., a memory cell) by accessing a series of distinct oxidation states of a molecular assembly. Gold, the electroactive surface predominantly employed, presents an electrochemical window that extends to ˜+1.2 V (versus Ag/Ag⁺). A number of writing and reading schemes require a potential difference of ΔE=150 mV in order to distinguish distinct oxidation states. Thus, to store multiple bits it is useful to have redox-active molecules that span the full potential provided by the gold electrode. For purposes of stability we have selected redox-active molecules that are reversibly cycled between neutral and cationic states rather than anionic states, given the greater stability of cations under ambient conditions.

We have described herein the synthesis of thiol-derivatized porphyrins for attachment to electroactive surfaces. Porphyrins have two stable and easily accessible cationic oxidation states (monocation, dication) (Felton (1978) In The Porphyrins; Dolphin, D., Ed.; Academic Press, N.Y. 5: 53–126). In porphyrins the electrochemical potentials can be tuned by attachment of appropriate substituents (Yang et al., (1999) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines 3: 117–147) or by variation in the central metal (Fuhrhop, et al. (1969) Am. Chem. Soc, 91: 4174–4181), thereby achieving oxidation potentials in the range of +0.5–+1.2 V.

In optimizing storage molecules according to the present invention, we have explored a number questions such as Whether, or not, there is a difference between co-depositing a collection of different types of molecules having distinct oxidation potentials in a memory storage location, versus employing a homogeneous population of molecules where each molecule is comprised of multiple redox-active units. The former approach is more easily implemented while the latter avoids potential problems such as differential partitioning onto the surface and/or compartmentalization of attached molecules that may occur with a heterogeneous population of molecules. We have also explored how the rate of electron transfer (and therefore the rate of writing and reading) and memory persistence lifetime are affected by molecular architecture? In addition, we have explored the effects of linker length and composition on rate of electron transfer of redox-active molecules attached to SAMs.

One of the most widely studied redox-active molecules in self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) is ferrocene (Chidsey (1991) Science, 251: 919–921; Tender et al., (1994) Anal. Chem. 66: 3173–3178; Weber et al. (1994) Anal. Chem. 66: 3164–3168; Everett, et al. (1995) Anal. Chem., 67: 292–298; Campbell et al. (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118: 10211–10219; Sachs et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 10563–10564; Creager et al., (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121: 1059–1064; Kondo et al., (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121: 391–398; Ye et al, (1999) Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 1: 3653–3659), due to the central role played by ferrocene in non-aqueous electrochemical studies. Ferrocenes present a number of attractive electrochemical features. Ferrocenes exhibit relatively stable radical cations. The electrochemical potential can be tuned by attachment of appropriate substituents (and other metallocenes can be employed), affording oxidation potentials in the range of −0.2 to >+0.5 V (Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry of the Elements, Bard, A. J.; Lund, H.; Eds.; Marcel Dekker: New York, 1979, Vol. 13, pp 3–27). One key distinction between a ferrocene and a porphyrin, however, is that ferrocene only has two easily accessible oxidation states (neutral, monocation), while porphyrins have three accessible and stable oxidation states (neutral, monocation, dication). The distinct electrochemical windows that are readily accessible with ferrocenes and porphyrins prompted us to explore the combination of porphyrins and ferrocenes in order to span the electrochemical window provided on a gold surface.

Thiol-derivatized ferrocene-porphyrins are attractive as prototypical molecular arrays comprised of multiple redox-active units for studies of multi-bit information storage. A large number of ferrocene-porphyrins have been prepared to date (Uosaki et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 8367–8368; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 71: 2555–2559; Kondo, et al. (1999) Z. Phys. Chem., 212: 23–30; Thornton et al. (1998) J. Phys. Chem. B, 102,:2101–2110; Beer et al. (1987) J. Organomet. Chem., 336: C17–C21; Beer et al. (1989) J. Organomet. Chem., 366: C₆–C₈; Wagner et al.,(1991) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1463–1466; Wagner, et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755–6790; Hisatome et al. (1985) Tetrahedron Lett., 26: 2347–2350; Beer et al. (1995) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun., 1187–1189; Beer et al. (1997) J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans. 881–886; Fujitsuka et al., Chem. Lett. 1999, 721–722; Imahori et al. (1999) Chem. Commun., 11651166; Wollmann et al. (1977) Inorg. Chem., 16: 3079–3089; Maiya et al. (1989) Inorg. Chem. 28: 2524–2527; Loim et al. (1996) Mendeleev Commun., 2: 46–47; Loim et al. (1997) Russ. Chem. B., 46: 1193–1194; Loim et al. (1998) Russ. Chem. B., 47, 1016–1020; Boyd et al. (1999) Chem. Commun., 637–638; Nadtochenko et al. (1999) Russ. Chem. B., 48:1900–1903; Vaijayanthimala et al. (1990) J. Coord. Chem., 21(Part A), 333–342; Schmidt et al. (1986) Inorg. Chem., 25: 3718–3720; Giasson, et al. (1993) J. Phys. Chem., 97: 2596–2601; Burrell et al. (1997) Tetrahedron Lett., 38: 1249–1252; Burrell et al. (1999) J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans., 3349–3354). The type of linker between the two electroactive units in these structures ranges from non-conjugated ether (Uosaki (1997) et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 8367–8368; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 71: 2555–2559; Kondo et al., (1999) Z. Phys. Chem., 212: 23–30; Thornton et al. (1998) J. Phys. Chem. B., 102: 2101–2110), ester (Beer et al., (1987) J. Organomet. Chem., 336: C17-C21; Beer et al. (1989) J. Organomet. Chem., 366: C6–C8; Wagner et al., (1991) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1463–1466; Wagner et al. (1997) Tetrahedron, 53: 6755–6790), amide (Hisatome et al. (1985) Tetrahedron Lett. 26: 2347–2350; Beer et al. (1995) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1187–1189; Beer et al. (1997) J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans., 881–886; Fujitsuka et al. (1999) Chem. Lett., 721–722; Imahori et al. (1999) Chem. Commun 1165–1166) to conjugated (direct linkage [Wollmann et al., (1977) Inorg. Chem. 16: 3079–3089; Maiya et al. (1989) Inorg. Chem., 28: 2524–2527; Loim et al. (1996) Mendeleev Commun., 2: 46–47; Loim et al., (1997) Russ. Chem. B., 46: 1193–1194; Loim et al. (1998) Russ. Chem. B., 47: 1016–1020; Boyd et al., (1999) Chem. Commun., 637–638; Nadtochenko et al. (1999) Russ. Chem. B., 48: 1900–1903), imine (Vaijayanthimala et al. (1990) J. Coord. Chem., 21(Part A): 333342), phenyl (Schmidt et al. (1986) Inorg. Chem., 25: 3718–3720), alkene (Giasson et al. (1993) J. Phys. Chem., 97: 2596–2601; Burrell et al. (1997) Tetrahedron Lett., 38: 1249–1252; Burrell, et al. (1999) J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans., 3349–3354). Two ferrocene porphyrins that bear a thiol unit attached to the end of a long flexible hydrocarbon chain have been prepared for attachment to a gold electrode (Uosaki et al. (1997) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119: 8367–8368; Yanagida et al. (1998) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 71: 2555–2559; Kondo et al. (1999) Z. Phys. Chem., 212: 23–30; Imahori et al. (1999) Chem. Commun., 1165–1166). For our studies we used a set of molecules with a high level of architectural rigidity and appropriate positioning of ferrocene, porphyrin, linkers, and thiol unit.

In this example, we describe a set of four thiol-derivatized ferrocene porphyrins. In order to achieve a high degree of 3-dimensional order, the p-phenylene linker has been used for attachment of the porphyrin to the thiol group. Three of the ferrocene-porphyrins are designed such that the ferrocene and porphyrin are separated by linkers of different length. Each ferrocene-porphyrin is designed for vertical orientation upon binding of the thio group on a gold surface, thereby disposing the ferrocene far from the gold surface (Zn-34, Zn-35 and Zn-36). A fourth ferrocene-porphyrin explores a different architecture, where the ferrocenes are attached to the lateral positions of the porphyrin (Zn-37). In this case the through-bond distance from thiol to ferrocene remains the same as with the ferrocene-porphyrin having the same spacer but in an upright position (Zn-35) while the through-space distance to the gold surface is much shorter. This set of ferrocene-porphyrins should provide valuable guidance concerning the design of molecular devices for the storage of multiple bits of information. Two sets of ferrocenes with thiol linkers of different lengths and extent of conjugation also have been synthesized. These thiol-derivatized ferrocene molecules serve as benchmarks for comparison with the ferrocene-porphyrins, with the thiol-derivatized porphyrins bearing diverse linkers described in the previous paper [Gryko, D. T., et al., submitted, companion paper 1], and with the large body of data where thiol-derivatized ferrocenes have been attached to electroactive surfaces. All of the thiol-derivatized molecules are prepared with S-acetyl or S-(N-ethylcarbamoyl) protected thiol groups, which undergo in situ cleavage on a gold electrode and thereby obviate handling of free thiols (Tour et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 117: 9529–9534; Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 8635–8647).

Results and Discussion

Ferrocene-Linked Thiols and Ferrocene Building Blocks.

We sought to prepare thiol-derivatized ferrocenes bearing a variety of aryl or alkyl linkers. Ferrocene is known to undergo arylation with a variety of diazonium salts (Nesmeyanov et al. (1954) Dokl. Akad. Nauk S. S. S. R, 97: 459–462; Broadhead et al., (1955) J. Chem. Soc., 367–370; Weinmayr (1955) Am. Chem. Soc., 77: 3012–3014), which is an approach we employed in the preparation of several of the ferrocene derivatives. Treatment of ferrocene with one molar equivalent of the diazonium salt of 4-iodoaniline afforded 4-iodophenylferrocene (1) in 30% yield (Scheme 1, FIG. 48). However, an excess of 4-iodoaniline (3 mol equiv) afforded 1 in 55% yield after separation from unreacted ferrocene. Lithiation of 4-iodophenylferrocene (1), following by trapping with sulfur (Jones et al. (1970) Org. Syn., 50: 104) and acetyl chloride (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376–1387) at −78° C. gave 4-(S-acetylthio)phenylferrocene (2) in 85% yield.

4-{2-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}phenylferrocene (5) was synthesized by two routes. The first route employed the key intermediate 4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]-phenylferrocene (3), which was accessed in two ways (Scheme 2, FIG. 49). The Pd-coupling (Takahashi et al. (1980) Synthesis, 8: 627–630) of 4-iodophenylferrocene (1) and (trimethylsilyl)acetylene in TEA at 40° C. for 4 h afforded 3. Alternatively, Pd-coupling of 4-iodoaniline with (trimethylsilyl)acetylene gave 4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]aniline (Id.), which upon diazotization and reaction with ferrocene gave 3. In both cases 3 was obtained in 50–55% yield. Cleavage of the trimethylsilyl group in 3 using K₂CO₃ in THF/MeOH gave 4-ethynylphenylferrocene (previously synthesized using a less efficient procedure (Simionescu et al. (1976) J. Organomet. Chem., 113, 23–28) (4), which upon Pd-coupling with 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene in the presence of TEA gave the desired ferrocene 5 in 56% yield. However, the yield of 5 was greatly improved (88%) with use of DIEA instead of TEA which is often used in such Pd coupling reactions.

In the second route to 5,4-iodo-1-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]benzene (Moore et al. (1991) Tetrahedron Lett., 32: 2465–2466; Lavastre et al. (1996) Tetrahedron, 52: 5495–5504; Hsung et al. (1995) Organometal, 14: 4808–4815; Yao et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1968–1971) (6) served as a key intermediate. This bifunctional compound has been prepared previously for use in the synthesis of molecular nanostructures. We investigated two paths as potential refinements to this key building block (Scheme 2, FIG. 49). Employing Tour's procedure (Yao et al (1990) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1968–1971) but with an improved Pd reagent and amine, the reaction of 1,4-diiodobenzene with 0.5 equiv of (trimethylsilyl)acetylene in TEA at 50° C. for 4 h afforded 6. Alternatively, treatment of the diazonium salt of 4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]aniline with KI also afforded 6. Lithiation of 6 and trapping with sulfur and acetyl chloride at −78° C. afforded 1-(S-acetylthio)-4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]benzene (7) in 90% yield. Deprotection of 7 with tetrabutylammonium fluoride in the presence of acetic acid and acetic anhydride following a reported procedure (Pearson et al (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376–1387) gave 1-(S-acetylthio)-4-ethynylbenzene (8) in 90% yield. Finally, the Pd-coupling of 4-iodophenylferrocene (1) and 8 in THF at room temperature in the presence of DIEA gave the desired ferrocene 5 in 90% yield.

Although the next target molecule 11 was available (Hsung et al. (1995) Organometal, 14: 4808–4815) via Pd-coupling of ethynylferrocene and 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene, we decided to examine another synthetic route. A slight modification of the catalyst in the Pd-coupling of ethynylferrocene 9 (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem, 425: 113–117) with excess 1,4-diiodobenzene increased the yield of intermediate 10 from 73% (Yu et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 2070–2079) to 95% (Scheme 3, FIG. 50). Lithiation of 10 following by trapping with elemental sulfur and acetyl chloride at −78° C. afforded the desired product 11 in 95% yield.

We also sought to investigate thiol-derivatized ferrocenes with lower oxidation potentials. Selective reduction of 1,1′-diacetylferrocene to 1-ethyl-1′-acetylferrocene 12 has been accomplished using systems such as H₂/PtO₂ (Rosenblum et al. (1958) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 80: 5443–5448) or Zn/Me₃SiCl (Denifil et al. (1996) J. Organomet. Chem., 523: 79–91) albeit in modest yield. Thus, we decided to apply the classical Clemmensen system (Zn/HgCl₂ amalgam and HCl), which gave 12 in up to 60% yield (Scheme 4, FIG. 51). The same sequence of reactions employed to prepare 11 was then applied to 12. In this manner, 12 was converted into the ethynylferrocene 13, which was coupled with 1,4-diiodobenzene to give 14, and the latter was treated with t-BuLi, sulfur, and acetyl chloride at −78° C. to obtain the desired product 15.

We recognized that 4-ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol could serve as a versatile intermediate in the synthesis of a variety of ferrocene derivatives. Arylation of ferrocene using commercially available 4-aminobenzyl alcohol following a general synthetic outline (Nesmeyanov et al., (1954) Dokl. Akad. Nauk S.S.S.R., 97: 459–462; Broadhead et al., (1955) J. Chem. Soc, 367–370; Weinmayr (1955) Am. Chem. Soc., 77: 3012–3014) afforded 4-ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol (16) and 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17) which were separated chromatographically (Scheme 5, FIG. 52). It is likely that the oxidation of the alcohol to the aldehyde occurred by nitrous acid generated from reaction of NaNO₂ with HCl. This reaction provides a new and simple way to prepare aldehyde 17. Subsequent borohydride reduction of aldehyde 17 gave alcohol 16 in 95% yield. Alternatively, treatment of ferrocene with the diazonium salt of ethyl 4-aminobenzoate afforded ferrocenyl ester 18 (Nesmeyanov (1958) Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 246: 495–501; Akiyama et al. (1977) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 50: 1137–1141; Shimizu et al., (1983) Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 56: 2023–2028). Reduction of 18 gave alcohol 16 (Scheme 5, FIG. 52).

Treatment of alcohol 16 with PPh₃ and CBr₄ in dry ether at room temperature for 12 h afforded 4-(bromomethyl)phenylferrocene (19) in 90% yield (Scheme 6, FIG. 53). Reaction of 19 with potassium thioacetate in DMF (Zhang et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 603–606) at room temperature for 16 h afforded 4-[S-(acetylthio)methyl]phenylferrocene (20) in 81% yield.

We also prepared a set of S-acetylthio-derivatized alkylferrocenes with different length alkyl chains for comparative studies. One member of this set (29) has been prepared previously (Chidsey et al. (1990) J. Am. Chem. Soc, 112: 4301–4306). Two closely related approaches to the S-acetylthio-derivatized alkylferrocenes have been established (Chidsey et al. (1990) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 112: 4301–4306; Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203–211), one of which is the route we followed to prepare a systematic set of compounds. The first step involves Friedel-Crafts acylation of ferrocene with the appropriate bromoalkanoyl chloride (Scheme 7, FIG. 54). The established route employed 6-bromohexanoyl chloride, followed by reduction of the carbonyl group to form the 6-(ferrocenyl)hexyl bromide (24) (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370, 203–211). Similar treatment of ferrocene with 12-bromododecanoyl chloride or 16-bromohexadecanoyl chloride gave the respective acylated ferrocenes (22, 23), which upon Clemmensen reduction gave 12-ferrocenyldodecyl bromide (25) and 16-ferrocenylhexadecyl bromide (26), respectively. Reaction of each ferrocenyl alkyl bromide (24–26) with potassium thioacetate afforded the respective S-acetylthio derivatized long-chain ferrocene (27–29) in good yield.

Ferrocene-Porphyrin-Thiols.

The synthesis of the thiol-derivatized ferrocene-porphyrins requires access to ferrocenyl aldehydes. Among three desired ferrocenyl aldehydes, ferrocenecarboxaldehyde is available commercially, and 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17 was already obtained using several different approaches (Egger et al. (1964) Monatsch. Chem., 95: 1750–1758; Shih et al., (1965) K'o Hsuch T'ungPao, 1: 78–79. CA 63:13314b; Moiseev et al., (1988) Koord. Khim., 14: 328–331; Coe et al. (1993) J. Organomet. Chem, 464: 225–232; Coles et al. (1997) J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1: 881–886). The serendipitous preparation of 17 from ferrocene and 4-aminobenzyl alcohol (vide supra) represents one of the most efficient preparations to date. Alternatively 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17 can be obtained from 4-ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol via oxidation using pyridinium chlorochromate. The diphenylethyne-linked ferrocene carboxaldehyde 30 was synthesized via Pd-coupling of ethynylphenylferrocene 4 with 4-iodobenzaldehyde in 85% yield (eqn 1, FIG. 45).

Each of the target porphyrins bears three different meso substituents (AB₂C type). One route to AB₂C-porphyrins involves a mixed condensation of one dipyrromethane and two aldehydes, forming three porphyrin products. The latter are then separated chromatographically. This overall synthetic route has been augmented recently by the development of non-scrambling conditions for the condensation, which ensures that the resulting mixture consists of no more than the expected three porphyrins. Two sets of non-scrambling conditions have been identified (BF₃-etherate and NH₄Cl in CH₃CN at 0° C., or 17.8 mM TFA in CH₂Cl₂ at rt) (Littler et al. (1999) S. J. Org. Chem., 64: 2864–2872). While not elegant, this route is expedient if the three porphyrins can be readily separated. The difficulty of this separation depends on the difference in polarity imparted by the substituents on the two aldehydes. In the course of this study, we found that the N-ethylcarbamoyl or the acetyl group attached to the thiophenol moiety (aldehyde 31 or 32) provides moderate polarity, thereby facilitating separation of the porphyrin mixtures.

The condensation of 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17), 4-[S-(Nethylcarbamoyl)thio]-benzaldehyde 32 (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 8635–8647), and 5-mesityldipyrromethane (Lee et al. 91994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427–11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391–1396) in the presence of BF₃-etherate and NH₄Cl in acetonitrile at 0° C. followed by oxidation with DDQ afforded the crude porphyrin mixture (containing porphyrin 34) (Scheme 8. FIG. 55). The mixture was treated with zinc acetate and upon final purification porphyrin Zn-34 was obtained in 3% yield (from aldehyde 31). The relatively low yield of porphyrin Zn-34 prompted us to perform the same condensation with TFA in CH₂Cl₂, which have proved for sterically hindered dipyrromethanes (Littler (1999) supra.). Additionally we decided to replace DDQ with p-chloranil (which is a weaker oxidant and thereby is less prone to oxidize the ferrocene moiety). Diisopropylethylamine (DIEA) also was added to neutralize the acid prior to oxidation (as acids are known to increase the oxidation potential of quinones) (Fukuzumi et al. (1987) J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. II, 751–760). In this manner, porphyrin Zn-34 was obtained in 19% yield (from aldehyde 31).

The synthesis of porphyrin Zn-33 from ferrocenecarboxaldehyde, 5-mesityldipyrro-methane and 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde (Gryko (1999) supra) was performed under both types of reaction conditions. Both conditions afforded much higher yields of porphyrin Zn-33 (9.4% in MeCN, 37% in CH₂Cl₂, from aldehyde 32) in comparison to porphyrin Zn-34. The latter result is astonishing because the best yield obtained to date for the condensation of 5-mesityldipyrromethane and any aldehyde yielding an A₂B₂-porphyrin in a non-statistical process is 48% (Littler et al. (1999) supra.); yet in this case the AB₂C-porphyrin is formed in a statistical reaction. Careful analysis by TLC and LD-MS showed significant skewing from the statistical ratio of the three expected porphyrins (which should be 1:2:1).

The synthesis of porphyrin 35 was performed only in the conditions affording higher yields (i.e., TFA in CH₂Cl₂/DIEA/p-chloranil). In this manner, aldehyde 30 was converted to porphyrin 35 in a yield of 10.3%. Upon metalation, Zn-35 was obtained in 70% yield. Thus a significant decrease in yield was discerned upon moving from ferrocenecarboxaldehyde (37%) through 17 (19%) to 30 (10%). It is noteworthy that TLC analysis as well as LD-MS analysis of the crude reaction mixtures showed no sign of scrambling in these reactions.

In order to synthesize the porphyrin bearing two lateral ferrocenes (Zn-37) we needed the corresponding dipyrromethane 36. Treatment of 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17 with excess pyrrole at room temperature using a standard procedure (Lee et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427–11440; Littler et al. (1999) supra.) afforded 36 in 94% yield (eqn 2, FIG. 46). The reaction of ferrocenyldipyrromethane 36, 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde 31 and 4-methylbenzaldehyde provided the three expected porphyrins (FIG. 47). After purification the desired porphyrin 37 was isolated, contaminated with some undefined species. Conversion to the zinc chelate enabled purification of Zn-37 (0.33% yield) by column chromatography. The source of the surprisingly low yield of porphyrin 37 has not been unequivocally established, but two possibilities involve DDQ-mediated oxidation of the ferrocene moieties or precipitation of the porphyrinogen. Thus the reaction was repeated with replacement of DDQ with p-chloranil and addition of a significant amount of THF to the reaction mixture upon initiation of the oxidation step. The free base thus obtained was converted to the zinc chelate in 3.1% yield (from dipyrromethane 36) (which represents an appreciable increase in yield). The low yield of metalation is partially due to a free base impurity and partially due to a side reaction which created undefined species that bound on the origin of TLC. In summary, the yields of some of the porphyrins were quite low, though sufficient material was obtained for electrochemical characterization.

Electrochemical Studies.

The electrochemical behavior of the ferrocenes and Zn ferrocene-porphyrins was investigated for samples both in solution and self-assembled on gold. The solution oxidation potentials of all the ferrocenes are similar to one another (E_(1/2)˜0.2 V vs Ag/Ag⁺) and similar to that of unsubstituted ferrocene (Ey, =0.19 V vs Ag/Ag⁺). The solution electrochemistry of the Zn ferrocene-porphyrins is characterized by three resolved oxidation waves (not shown). These waves correspond to the oxidation of the ferrocene constituent(s) and the two oxidations of the Zn porphyrin. In the case of Zn-37, the wave due to ferrocene corresponds to the overlapping waves of the two identical ferrocene constituents. For Zn-34, Zn-35, and Zn-37, the oxidation potentials for the ferrocene constituent(s) and the porphyrin are essentially identical to those of a the isolated components (Zn-P, E_(1/2)(1)˜0.6 V; E_(1/2)(2)˜0.9 V; ferrocene, E_(1/2)=˜0.20 V versus Ag/Ag⁺). This result indicates that the ferrocene constituent(s) and the Zn porphyrins are electrically isolated from one another. In the case of Zn-33, the potentials for all three oxidations are shifted negatively by ˜0.1 V. This shift is attributed to conjugative interactions that occur because the ferrocene is directly bound to the porphyrin.

The ferrocenes and the Zn ferrocene-porphyrins bearing the different linkers all form self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold via in situ cleavage of the S-acetyl protecting group. The SAMs of all the ferrocenes and Zn ferrocene-porphyrins are electrochemically robust and exhibit one (ferrocenes) or three (Zn ferrocene porphyrins) reversible oxidation waves. In fast-scan (100 V/s) cyclic voltammograms of the SAMs of two ferrocenes (27 and 20) and two Zn ferrocene-porphyrins (Zn-34 and Zn-37), respectively, the Ey, values for the ferrocene SAMs are shifted slightly more positive (0.05 V or less) than those observed in solution. The E_(1/2) values for the ferrocenes and the Zn porphyrins in the Zn ferrocene-porphyrin SAMs are each shifted by ˜0.15 V more positive than those observed in solution. This trend parallels that previously reported for SAMs of both ferrocenes (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203–211) and porphyrins. The observation that the voltammograms of the Zn-34 and Zn-37 SAMs are generally similar indicates that positioning the ferrocene substituents either on top of (Zn-34) or at the sides of (Zn-37) the porphyrin is a viable design for constructing multiple bit information storage elements. However, the former design offers the advantage of a smaller molecular area and therefore, a higher packing density.

Conclusions

Ferrocene has been the benchmark for a wide variety of electrochemical studies of self-assembled monolayers on electroactive surfaces. Most prior studies have employed ferrocene alkanethiols. The facile in situ deprotection of the S-acetyl protecting group on gold surfaces has motivated the synthesis of S-acetyl protected ferrocenylalkanethiol derivatives. A set of ferrocene-porphyrins bearing an attached thiol unit have been prepared for studies of the effects of molecular structure on information storage properties (writing/reading rates, persistence of memory). Non-scrambling conditions for aldehyde-dipyrromethane condensations facilitated the synthesis of the AB₂C-type ferrocene-porphyrin-thiol structures. A small set of ferrocene-aldehydes enabled the preparation of the corresponding ferrocene-porphyrins. Each ferrocene-porphyrin is designed for vertical organization on an electroactive surface yet possesses a distinct location of the ferrocene in the molecular architecture. Each of the ferrocene-porphyrins forms a SAM that exhibits robust, reversible electrochemistry. Collectively, the studies indicated that all of the architectures examined are potential candidates for multi-bit molecular information storage elements.

Experimental Section

General.

All chemicals obtained commercially were used as received unless otherwise noted. Reagent grade solvents (CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃, hexanes) and HPLC grade solvents (acetonitrile, toluene) were used as received from Fisher Scientific. Unless otherwise indicated, all solvents were obtained from Fisher Scientific. Pyrrole was distilled from CaH₂. All reported NMR spectra were collected in CDCl₃ (¹H NMR at 300 MHz; ¹³C NMR at 75 MHz). UV-Vis absorption and fluorescence spectra were recorded in CH₂Cl₂ or toluene as described previously (Li et al. (1997) J. Mater. Chem., 7: 1245–1262; Li et al. (1999) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121: 8927–8940). Flash chromatography was performed on flash silica (Baker, 200–400 mesh) or alumina (Fisher, 80–200 mesh). Mass spectra were obtained via laser desorption (LD-MS) in the absence of an added matrix (Fenyo et al. (1997) J. Porphyrins Phthalocyanines, 1: 93–99), fast atom bombardment (FAB-MS, 10 ppm elemental compositional accuracy for the porphyrins), or electron-impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS). Porphyrin metalation was monitored by fluorescence emission and excitation spectroscopy. After elution, the TLC plates were visualized with UV light or sprayed with a solution of p-methoxybenzaldehyde (26 mL), glacial acetic acid (11 mL), concentrated sulfuric acid (35 mL), and 95% ethanol (960 mL) followed by heating (Gordon et al. (1972) The Chemist's Companion, Wiley-Interscience, New York:, p. 379]. All solvents were dried by standard methods prior to use. 4-iodobenzaldehyde was obtained from Karl Industries, Ltd. Ethynylferrocene 9 (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem., 425: 113–117), 5-(ferrocenylcarbonyl)pentyl bromide 22 and 6-ferrocenylhexyl bromide 25 were prepared according to the reported procedures (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem. 370: 203–211).

4-Iodophenylferrocene (1)

4-Iodoaniline (8.8 g, 40 mmol) was suspended in a mixture of conc. HCl (20 mL) and H₂O (50 mL) and cooled to 0° C. A solution of NaNO₂ (3.3 g, 48 mmol) in H₂O (10 mL) was added dropwise with stirring while the temperature was carefully maintained at 0–5° C. After the addition was completed, the mixture was stirred for 30 min at 0° C. The resulting diazonium salt solution was then added slowly to a solution of ferrocene (3.7 g, 20 mmol) in toluene (100 mL) at 0° C. An instantaneous evolution of gas was observed. After complete addition, the reaction mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 1 h. Then the mixture was warmed to rt and stirring was continued for 16 h. The layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with toluene (3×100 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with satd aq NaHCO₃ (3×100 mL), brine (3×100 mL), dried (MgSO₄) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford 4.2 g (55%) of an orange solid: mp 119–121° C.; ¹H NMR δ 4.02 (s, 5H), 4.33 (t, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.61 (t, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.20,7.58 (AA′BB′, J=7.8 Hz, 4H); ¹³C NMR δ 66.4, 69.2, 69.7, 84.1, 90.5, 127.9, 137.3, 139.2; FAB-MS obsd 387.9420 calcd exact mass 387.9411 (C₁₆H₁₃FeI).

4-(S-Acetylthio)phenylferrocene (2)

Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping (Jones et al., (1970) Org. Syn., 50: 104) followed by acetylation (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376–1387), a solution of 1 (2.0 g, 5.1 mmol) in dry THF (20 mL) under argon at −78° C. was stirred and treated with tert-butyllithium (3.1 mL, 5.2 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane) dropwise over a period of 10 min. The mixture was stirred at −78° C. for an additional 5 min. Elemental sulfur (0.16 g, 5.2 mmol) in dry THF (40 mL, 0° C.) was added in one portion, and the mixture was allowed to warm to 0° C. for 30 min. The mixture was cooled to −78° C., and acetyl chloride (0.60 g, 5.2 mmol) was added in one portion. The reaction mixture was warmed to rt overnight, poured into rapidly stirred ice-water (50 mL), extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (3×50 mL) and dried (MgSO₄). The solvent was removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford 1.5 g (85%) of an orange solid: mp 108–110° C.; ¹H NMR δ 2.42 (s, 3H), δ 4.12 (s, 5H), 4.22 (t, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.42 (t, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.35, 7.50 (AA′BB′, J=8.5 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 30.2, 66.7, 69.3, 69.7, 84.1, 124.7, 126.8, 134.3, 141.2, 194.4; FAB-MS obsd 336.0297, calcd exact mass 336.0271; Anal. Calcd for C₁₈H₁₆FeOS: C, 64.30; H, 4.80; Found: C, 64.29; H, 4.83.

4-[2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]phenylferrocene (3)

Method 1.

Samples of 1 (2.0 g, 5.2 mmol), CuI (5.0 mg, 26 μmol) and PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ (30 mg, 43 μmol) were dissolved in freshly distilled TEA (40 mL). The flask was then evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on a Schlenk line. (Trimethylsilyl)acetylene (0.78 mL, 5.5 mmol) was added dropwise under stirring. After the addition was complete, the reaction mixture was heated to 50° C. and sealed for 4 h at this temperature. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure to give a red oil. Purification by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/ethyl ether, 10:3) afforded 1.6 g (85%) of a red-orange solid: mp 110–112° C.

Method 2.

4-[2-(Trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]aniline (Takahashi et al. (1980) Synthesis, 8: 627–630) (1.0 g, 5.3 mmol) was suspended in a mixture of conc. HCl (2.4 mL) and H₂O (10 mL) and cooled to 0° C. under stirring. A solution of NaNO₂ (0.40 g, 5.8 nmol) in H₂O (2 mL) was added while the temperature was carefully maintained between 0–5° C. After the addition was complete, the mixture was stirred for 30 min at 0° C. The resulting diazonium salt solution was then added slowly to a solution of ferrocene (0.49 g, 2.7 mmol) in toluene (100 mL) at 0° C., resulting in gas evolution. After the addition was complete, the mixture was stirred for 1 h at 0° C., warmed to rt and stirring was continued for an additional 16 h. The layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with toluene (3×50 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with satd aq NaHCO₃ (3×50 mL), brine (3×50 mL), dried (MgSO₄) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1) to remove unreacted ferrocene. Elution with CH₂Cl₂ afforded 0.42 g (44%) of compound 3. ¹H NMR δ 0.27 (s, 9H), 4.02 (s, 5H), 4.35 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.40 (s, 4H); ¹³C NMR δ 0.04, 66.5, 69.3, 69.7, 84.1, 94.0, 105.5, 120.2, 125.6, 132.0, 140.1; FAB-MS obsd 358.0851, calcd exact mass 358.0840 (C₂₁H₂₂FeSi).

4-(Ethvnyl)phenylferrocene (4)

A solution of 3 (1.5 g, 4.2 mmol) in anhydrous THF/MeOH (2:1, 30 mL) was treated with K₂CO₃ (1.2 g, 8.4 mmol) and the mixture was stirred at rt for 30 min. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure affording an orange solid. The residue was dissolved in ether (50 mL), washed with H₂O (3×50 mL), dried (MgSO₄) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. Purification by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/ethyl ether, 10:2) afforded an orange solid (1.0 g, 90%): mp 104–106° C.; ¹H NMR δ 3.11 (s, 1H), 4.04 (s; 5H), 4.35 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (t, J=2.4 Hz, 2H), 7.42 (s, 4H); ¹³C NMR δ 66.5, 69.3, 69.7, 84.0, 94.1, 105.5, 120.3, 125.7, 132.1, 140.3; FAB-MS obsd 286.0460, calcd exact mass 286.0445 (C₁₈H₁₄Fe). Physical properties concur with published data (Simionescu et al. (1976) J. Organomet. Chem., 113: 23–28).

4-{2-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyl]ethynyl}phenylferrocene (5)

Method 1:

Samples of 4 (1.0 g, 3.5 mmol), CuI (2.5 mg, 13 μmol), (PPh₃)₂PdCl₂ (6.0 mg, 13 μmol) and 1-iodo-4-(S-acetylthio)benzene [Gryko, D. T., et al., submitted, companion paper 1] (1.0 g, 3.9 mmol) were added to a 50 mL Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on the Schlenk line. Then freshly distilled and degassed DIEA (1.3 mL, 7.0 mmol) and THF (5 mL) were added. The flask was placed in a preheated oil bath (40° C.) and sealed. The mixture was stirred for 4 h at 40° C., cooled to rt and filtered. The filter cake was washed with CH₂Cl₂ (3×10 mL). The filtrate was washed with water (3×20 mL) and satd aq NaCl and dried (MgSO₄). The solvents were removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford a red solid (1.3 g, 88%).

Method 2:

4-Iodophenylferrocene (1, 1.0 g, 2.5 mmol), CuI (2.5 mg, 13 μmol), (PPh₃)₂PdCl₂ (6.0 mg, 13 mmol), 8 (0.5 g, 3.0 mmol) and DIEA (1.3 mL, 7.0 mmol) were added to a 50 mL Schlenk flask. The flask was then evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on a Schlenk line. Then freshly distilled and degassed THE (5 mL) was added. The flask was sealed and the mixture was stirred for 24 h at rt and filtered. The filter cake was washed with CH₂Cl₂ (3×10 mL). The filtrate was washed with water (3×20 mL) and satd aq NaCl and dried (MgSO₄). The solvent was removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford a red solid (1.0 g, 90%). mp 118–120° C.; IR(KBr) v/cm⁻¹: 2253.6 (s), 1794.0 (w), 1474.4 (m), 1382.1 (w), 1105.6 (m), 1003 (m); ¹H NMR δ 2.44 (s, 3H), 4.04 (s, 5H), 4.36 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.67 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.39, 7.55, 4.67 (AA′BB′, J=8.7 Hz, 2×2H), 7.45 (s, 4H); ¹³C NMR δ 31.0, 67.2, 67.3, 70.1, 70.4, 70.6, 71.0, 89.4, 92.2, 125.5, 126.5, 132.4, 132.8, 133.2, 133.3, 134.9, 140.9, 193.2; FAB-MS obsd 436.0595, calcd exact mass 436.0584; Anal. Calcd for C₂₆H₂₀FeOS: C, 71.57; H, 4.62; Found: C, 71.56; H, 4.64.

1-Iodo-4-[2-trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]benzene (6)

To a mixture of (trimethylsilyl)-acetylene (2.0 mL, 14 mmol) and 1,4-diiodobenzene (9.4 g, 28 mmol) in freshly distilled TEA (40 mL) and THF (20 mL) in a 100 mL Schlenk flask were added CuI (0.19 g, 1.0 mmol) and PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ (0.30 g, 0.43 mmol) with stirring. The flask was then evacuated and purged with argon (3 times) on a Schlenk line. The mixture was heated at 40° C. (oil bath), sealed and stirred for 4 h. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in ethyl ether (150 mL), washed with H₂O (3×100 mL), dried (MgSO₄) and filtered. The solvent removed under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/ethyl ether, 10: 1) to afford 5.5 g (85%) of an off-white solid. mp 57–59° C. (lit.²⁵ 56–58° C.); ¹H NMR δ 0.33 (s, 9H), 7.18, 7.64 (AA′BB′, J=8.7 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 0.24, 94.2, 96.1, 102.6, 123.4, 133.5, 137.8; FAB-MS obsd 299.9821, calcd exact mass 299.9882 (C₁₁H₁₃ISi).

1-(S-Acetylthio)-4-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]benzene (7)

Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping [Jones et al., (1970) Org. Syn., 50: 104) followed by acetylation (Pearson et al (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62: 1376–1387), a solution of 6 (2.0 g, 6.3 mmol) in dry THF (20 mL) was stirred under argon at −780 C and treated with tert-butyllithium (3.8 mL, 6.3 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane) dropwise over a 10 min period. The mixture was stirred at −78° C. for additional 5 min. A cold slurry of elemental sulfur (0.2 g, 6.3 mmol) in dry THF (40 mL, 0° C.) was added in one portion, and the mixture was warmed to 0° C. in 30 min. The flask was cooled to −78° C., and acetyl chloride (0.8 g, 6.5 mmol) was added in one portion. The yellow mixture was warmed to rt overnight, then poured into rapidly stirred ice-water (50 mL), extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (3×50 mL) and dried (MgSO₄). The solvents were removed and the residue was purified by flash column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a yellow solid (1.4 g, 80%): mp 45–47° C. (lit.⁴² 42–44° C.); ¹H NMR δ 0.25 (s, 9H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 7.34, 7.48 (AA′BB′, J=8.7 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 31.3, 97.0, 105.5, 125.3, 129.4, 133.9, 135.5, 195.2; FAB-MS obsd 248.0713, calcd exact mass 248.0718 (C₁₃H₁₆OSSi).

2-(4-Iodophenyl)ethynylferrocene (10)

Following the procedure for preparing 6, samples of 9 (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem. 425: 113–117) (1.0 g, 9.6 mmol), 1,4-diiodobenzene (3.0 g, 20 mmol), PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ (30 mg, 43 μmol) and CuI (5.0 mg, 26 μmol) were reacted in THF (20 mL) and Et₃N (20 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at 50° C. for 5 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether) to afford 1.9 g (95%) of a red-brown solid. ¹H NMR δ 4.24 (s, 5H), 4.25 (s, 2H), 4.50 (s, 2H), 7.21, 7.65 (AA′BB′, J=8.7 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 66.3, 68.8, 70.5, 72.0, 85.1, 91.1, 124.6, 127.4, 133.5, 137.8; FAB-MS obsd 411.9439, calcd exact mass 411.9436 (C₁₈H₁₃FeI). Spectral and physical properties concur with published data (Yu et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem. 64: 2070–2079).

2-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyl]ethynylferrocene (11)

Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping [Jones, E., et al., Org. Syn. 1970, 50, 104] followed by acetylation (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem., 62:1376–1387), samples of 10 (1.0 g, 2.4 mmol), t-BuLi (3.0 mL, 5.1 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane), elemental sulfur (0.092 g, 2.9 mmol) and acetyl chloride (0.8 mL, 2.9 mmol) were reacted in dry THF under −78° C. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to rt for 16 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether:ether, 10:1) to afford 0.81 g (95%) of ared-brown solid. mp 113–115° C. (lit.²⁵ 96–98° C.); ¹H NMR δ 2.44 (s, 3H), 4.25 (s, 5H), 4.26 (t, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.51 (t, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.18, 7.64 (AA′BB′, J=8.1 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 30.1, 65.1, 69.2, 70.5, 71.7, 85.0, 90.6, 125.3, 127.3, 133.0, 134.4, 198.0; FAB-MS obsd 360.0270, calcd exact mass 360.0269 (C₂₀H₁₆FeOS).

1-Acetyl-1′-ethylferrocene (12)

1,1′-Diacetylferrocene (5.0 g, 20 mmol) in toluene (20 mL) was added to a freshly prepared mixture of zinc/mercury amalgam (3.0 g of granulated Zn, 0.2 g of HgCl₂), 10 M HCl (20 mL) and water (20 mL). The reaction mixture was heated to reflux for 4 h with vigorous stirring. The mixture was cooled to rt and extracted with toluene (3×50 mL) and the organic layer was washed with water (3×100 mL) and satd aq NaHCO₃ (3×50 mL). The organic layer was dried (MgSO₄), evaporated, and chromatographed (silica, petroleum ether:ether, 1:10) to afford 2.8 g (60%) of a red-brown oil. ¹H NMR δ 1.13 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.26 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.36 (s, 3H), 4.08 (s, 4H), 4.44 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.69 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H); ¹³C NMR δ 15.4, 22.2, 28.2, 69.8, 69.9, 70.7, 73.6, 92.5, 202.8; FAB-MS obsd 256.0544, calcd exact mass 256.0551 (C₁₄H₁₆FeO). Spectral and physical properties concur with published data (Rosenblum et al. (1958) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 80: 5443–5448).

1-Ethyl-1′-ethynylferrocene (13)

Following a general procedure (Doisneau et al. (1992) J. Organomet. Chem. 425: 113–117), to a solution of 12 (2.0 g, 7.8 mmol) in dry THF (50 mL) at −78° C. were added dropwise 1.1 equiv of freshly prepared LDA (40 mL, 8.0 mmol) in THF. After 1 h at −78° C., diethyl chlorophosphate (1.1 equiv, 1.2 mL, 8.0 mmol) was added at −78° C. for 1 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to rt for an additional 1 h and then was recooled to −78° C. and an additional 2.3 equiv of LDA (80 mL, 20 mmol) was added. The reaction mixture was warmed to rt and stirred overnight then hydrolyzed at 0° C. The reaction mixture was extracted with ether (3×50 mL) and the combined organic layers were washed with water (3×50 mL) and satd NaCl (3×50 mL) and dried (MgSO₄). The resulting residue after evaporation was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether) to afford 1.7 g (90%) of a yellow oil. ¹H NMR δ 1.19 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.36 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 2.73 (s, 1H), 4.10 (m, 4H), 4.15 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.37 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H); ¹³C NMR δ 15.3, 21.9, 66.5, 69.7, 69.8, 70.0, 72.9, 74.3; FAB-MS obsd 238.0466, calcd exact mass 238.0445; Anal. Calcd for C₁₄H₁₄Fe: C, 70.62; H, 5.93; Found: C, 70.65; H, 5.92.

1-Ethyl-1′-[2-(4-iodophenyl)ethynyl]ferrocene (14)

Following the procedure for preparing 6, samples of 13 (1.0 g, 4.2 mmol), 1,4-diiodobenzene (2.8 g, 8.5 mmol), PdCL₂(PPh₃)₂ (30 mg, 43 μmol) and CuI (5.0 mg, 26 μmol) were reacted in THF (20 mL) and Et₃N (20 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at 50° C. for 5 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether) to afford 1.8 g (95%) of a red-brown solid. mp 55–57° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.17 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 3H), 2.35 (q, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 4.10 (s, 4H), 4.18 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.40 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H), 7.18, 7.64 (AA′BB′, J=8.1 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 15.5, 22.3, 67.0, 68.9, 69.5, 70.2, 74.5, 91.2, 123.3, 133.5, 134.0, 135.8; FAB-MS obsd 439.8721, calcd exact mass 439.8724 (C₂₀H₁₇FeI).

1-{2-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyl]-2-ethynyl}-1′-ethylferrocene (15)

Following a general procedure for lithiation and sulfur trapping (Jones et al. (1970) Org. Syn. 50: 104] followed by acetylation (Pearson et al. (1997) J. Org. Chem. 62: 1376–1387), samples of 14 (1.0 g, 2.3 mmol), t-BuLi (2.7 mL, 4.6 mmol, 1.7 M in pentane), elemental sulfur (0.09 g, 2.8 mmol) and acetyl chloride (0.8 mL, 2.8 mmol) were reacted in dry THF under −78° C. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to rt for 16 h and worked up. The resulting residue was purified by columm chromatography (silica, petroleum ether:ether, 10:1) to afford 0.83 g (95%) of a red-brown solid. mp 83–85° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.20 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 2.40 (q, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.42 (s, 3H), 4.12 (s, 4H), 4.22 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H), 4.42 (t, J=2.1 Hz, 2H), 7.35, 7.50 (AA′BB′, J=8.1 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 15.1, 21.8, 30.9, 65.5, 69.6, 70.0, 70.1, 72.6, 132.5, 134.9, 194.4; FAB-MS obsd 388.0644, calcd exact mass 388.0645; Anal. Calcd for C₂₂H₂₀FeOS: C, 68.05; H, 5.19; Found: C, 68.08; H, 5.24.

4-Ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol (16)

Method A:

A solution of 4-(carbethoxy)phenyl-ferrocene 18 (1.13 g, 3.40 mmol) in THF (10 mL) was added via syringe to a suspension of LiAlH₄ (105 mg, 2.70 mmol) in THF (10 mL). The mixture was heated to reflux under Ar for 1 h. After 1 h TLC (silica, CH₂Cl₂) showed a new component (R_(f)=0.2) and no starting material (R_(f)=0.6). The reaction mixture was cooled to 0° C. and then quenched by sequential addition of 200 μL H₂O, 200 μL 10% NaOH, and 600 μL H₂O (caution: exothermic reaction). The resulting slurry was poured into a mixture Et₂O (40 mL) and satd aq Rochelle's salt (60 mL) and stirred at rt until the aluminum salts dissolved (about 20 min). The layers were separated, and the ethereal layer was washed with H₂O (30 mL), brine (30 mL), and dried over MgSO₄. The solution was evaporated to yield 878 mg of a yellow solid (87.8%).

Method B:

4-Aminobenzyl alcohol (3.0 g, 24 mmol) was suspended in a mixture of conc. HCl (20 mL) and H₂O (20 mL) and cooled to 0° C. under stirring. A solution of NaNO₂ (2.1 g, 30 mmol) in H₂O (10 mL) was added dropwise while the temperature was carefully maintained between 0–5° C. The resulting mixture was stirred for 30 min at 0° C., then slowly added at 0° C. to a solution of ferrocene (3.7 g, 20 mmol) in toluene (100 mL), resulting in gas evolution. After complete addition, the reaction mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 6 h and warmed to rt. Stirring was continued for another 6 h. The layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with toluene (3×100 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with satd aq NaHCO₃ (3×100 mL), brine (3×100 mL), dried (MgSO₄) and filtered. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:2) to afford 0.94 g (20%) of 4-ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol 16 (as well as 2.1 g (45%) of 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17).

Method C:

Sodium borohydride (0.5 g, 14 mmol) was added to a cold (0° C.) solution of 17 (2.0 g, 6.9 mmol) in methanol (20 mL) with stirring. After stirring for 40 min at 0° C., the mixture was neutralized with dilute HCl (10%) and extracted with diethyl ether (3×50 mL). The ether solution was dried (MgSO₄) and removed in vacuo to yield a yellow solid (1.9 g, 95%). mp 109–111° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.66 (t, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.04 (s, 5H), 4.31 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.64 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.66 (d, J=6 Hz, 2H), 7.29, 7.47 (AA′BB′, J=8.7 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 65.9, 67.2, 69.3, 70.3, 85.7, 105.0, 127.0, 127.9, 139.0, 139.5; FAB-MS obsd 292.0631, calcd exact mass 292.0648; Anal. Calcd for C₁₇H₁₆FeO: C, 69.89; H, 5.52; Found: C, 70.03; H, 5.46.

4-Ferrocenylbenzaldehyde (17)

A sample of 4-ferrocenylbenzyl alcohol 16 (630 mg, 2.15 mmol) was added to a suspension of pyridinium chlorochromate (1.22 g, 3.23 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (5 mL) and the mixture was stirred under argon at rt for 18 h. Then Et₂O (20 mL) was added and the mixture was filtered through a pad of Celite. The filtrate was concentrated and chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 4:1) affording 306 mg (47.8%). TLC (silica, CH₂Cl₂), R_(f)=0.35; mp 122–125° C. (lit.^(35a)121–125° C.); ¹H NMR δ 4.07 (s, 5H), 4.46 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.47 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.60,7.78 (AA′BB′, J=8.7 Hz, 4H), 9.97 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR δ 67.8, 70.5, 70.6, 70.8, 127.0, 127.7, 130.7, 130.7, 134.7, 192.5; EI-MS obsd 290.0406 (M⁺), calcd exact mass 290.0394; Anal. Calcd for C₁₇H₁₄FeO: C, 70.37; H, 4.86; Found: C, 70.50; H, 4.81.

4-(Bromomethyl)phenylferrocene (19)

Triphenylphosphine (2.6 g, 10 mmol) and CBr₄ (3.3 g, 10 mmol) were added to a solution of 16 (1.9 g, 6.6 mmol) in dry ether (50 mL) and the mixture was stirred overnight under argon at rt. The precipitate was filtered off and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a red oil (1.9 g, 82%): ¹H NMR δ 4.06 (s, 5H), 4.35 (s, 2H), 4.52 (s, 2H), 4.65 (s, 2H), 7.32, 745 (AA′BB′, J=8.5 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 33.1, 33.8, 67.1, 69.2, 70.0, 85.9, 127.4, 129.1, 135.5, 138.9; FAB-MS obsd 355.0543, calcd exact mass 355.0548; Anal. Calcd for C₁₇H₁₅BrFe: C, 57.51; H, 4.26; Found: C, 57.59; H, 4.20.

4-[(S-Acetylthio)methyl]phenylferrocene (20)

Following a general procedure (Zhang et al. (1999) Tetrahedron Lett., 40: 603–606), a solution of 19 (1.5 g, 4.2 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added to a solution of potassium thioacetate (0.60 g, 5.0 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) and the mixture was stirred overnight at rt. The mixture was filtered and water was added to the filtrate. The filtrate was extracted with ethyl ether (3×50 mL), and the combined organic layers were dried (MgSO₄) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) affording a yellow solid (1.3 g, 90%): mp 79–81° C.; ¹H NMR δ 2.38 (s, 3H), 4.05 (s, 5H), 4.12 (s, 2H), 4.31 (A₂B₂,J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.62 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 7.21, 7.41 (AA′BB′, J=8.5 Hz, 2×2H); ¹³C NMR δ 31.1, 34.0, 67.2, 69.6, 70.3, 85.7, 127.0, 129.5, 135.7, 139.1, 196.1; FAB-MS obsd 350.0431, calcd exact mass 350.0428; Anal. Calcd for C₁₉H₁₈FeOS: C, 65.15; H, 5.18; Found: C, 64.91; H, 5.15.

11-(Ferrocenylcarbonyl)undecyl bromide (22)

Following a general procedure for preparing 21 (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203–211), a solution of 12-bromododecanoic acid (4.2 g, 15 mmol) in SOCl₂ (50 mL) was heated at 50° C. under argon for 1 h. The excess SOCl₂ was removed by water pump distillation with benzene (3×50 mL). 4.3 g (95%) of 12-bromododecanoyl chloride was obtained as a colorless oil and used in the subsequent reaction without further purification. In a 50 mL flask anhydrous AlCl₃ (2.8 g, 21 mmol) was added to a stirred solution of 12-bromododecanoyl chloride (4.0 g, 13.6 mmol) in dry CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL) at 0° C. under argon for 20 min. Then the mixture was added dropwise over 10 min to a solution of ferrocene (2.6 g, 14 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (50 nL) at 0° C. The mixture was stirred and allowed to warm to rt. After 2 h water (30 mL) was added slowly into this mixture. Then the phases were separated, and the organic layer was washed with water (3×100 mL) and NaHCO₃ (2×50 mL) and over (MgSO₄). The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:3) to afford a red oil (4.3 g, 85%). ¹H NMR δ 1.28 (s, 16H), 1.64 (m, 2H), 2.63 (m, 2H), 3.29 (m, 2H), 4.19 (s, 5H), 4.48 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.78 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H); ¹³C NMR δ 25.0, 28.5, 29.0, 30.1, 30.9, 33.3, 34.5, 40.5, 70.0, 70.4, 72.9, 89.0, 205.0; FAB-MS obsd 446.0955, calcd exact mass 446.0958 (C₁₂H₃₁BrFeO).

15-(Ferrocenylcarbonyl)pentadecyl bromide (23)

16-Bromohexadecanoic acid (4.5 g, 14 mmol) in SOCl₂ (50 mL) was heated at 50° C. under argon for 1 h. The excess SOCl₂ was removed by water pump distillation with benzene (3×50 mL). 4.3 g (95%) of 16-bomohexadecanoyl chloride was obtained as a colorless oil and used in the subsequent reaction without further purification. 16-Bromohexadecanoyl chloride (4.5 g, 13 mmol) was treated with ferrocene (2.5 g, 14 mmol) following the same procedure as described for 22 to form a brown oil (5.7 g, 85%): ¹H NMR δ 1.25 (s, 22H), 1.68 (m, 2H), 1.84 (m, 2H), 2.68 (m, 2H), 3.39 (m, 2H), 4.18 (s, 5H), 4.47 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H), 4.76 (A₂B₂, J=1.5 Hz, 2H); ¹³C NMR δ 25.3, 28.8, 29.4, 30.1, 30.2, 30.3, 34.8, 40.4, 70.0, 70.4, 72.7, 89.1, 205.4; FAB-MS obsd 502.1533, calcd exact mass 502.1535 (C₂₆H₃₉BrFeO).

12-Ferrocenyldodecyl bromide (25)

Following a general procedure for preparing 24 (Creager et al. (1994) J. Electroanal. Chem., 370: 203–211), to a freshly prepared zinc/mercury amalgam (6.7 g granulated Zn, 0.4 g HgCL²) in a 100 mL flask was added 10 M HCl (40 mL) with stirring. A solution of 22 (3.0 g, 6.7 mmol) in toluene (40 mL) was added in one portion. The resulting two-phase mixture was heated to reflux and stirred vigorously. After 16 h under reflux, during which two 5 mL portions of 10 M HCl were added, the reaction flask was cooled to rt. The phases were separated, and the organic layer was washed with water (3×100 mL) and dried (MgSO₄). The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a brown oil (2.6 g, 90%) that solidified upon standing in the freezer: mp 40–42° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.29 (s, 16H), 1.47 (m, 2H), 1.86 (m, 2H), 2.32 (m, 2H), 3.42 (m, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.06 (s, 2H), 4.10 (s, 5H); ¹³C NMR δ 28.2, 28.8, 29.5, 29.6, 31.1, 32.9, 34.0, 67.0, 68.1, 68.5, 89.6; FAB-MS obsd 432.1114, calcd exact mass 432.1115 (C₂₂H₃₃BrFe).

16-Ferrocenylhexadecyl bromide (26)

15-(Ferrocenylcarbonyl)pentadecyl bromide 23 (1.5 g, 2.8 mmol) was treated with zinc/mercury amalgam (2.8 g of granulated Zn, 0.3 g of HgCl₂) as described for 25 to afford a yellow solid (1.3 g, 90%): mp 52–54° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.27 (s, 18H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 2.32 (m, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.87 (m, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 4.11 (s, 5H); ¹³C NMR δ 28.2, 28.8, 29.5, 29.6, 29.7, 31.1, 32.9, 34.0, 67.0, 68.1, 68.5, 88.9; FAB-MS obsd 488.1752, calcd exact mass 488.1741 (C₂₆H₄₁BrFe).

6-(S-Acetylthio)hexylferrocene (27)

Following a general procedure (Zhang et al. (1999), Tetrahedron Lett. 40: 603–606), 6-ferrocenylhexyl bromide (24, 1.2 g, 3.5 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added to a stirred solution of potassium thioacetate (0.51 g, 4.5 mmol) in DMF (10 mL). The mixture was stirred at rt until TLC showed complete consumption of the ferrocene starting material (20 h). The mixture was filtered and water was added to the filtrate. The filtrate was extracted with ethyl ether (3×50 mL), and the combined organic layers were dried (MgSO₄) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by column chromatography (silica, petroleum ether/diethyl ether, 10:1) to afford a yellow oil (1.1 g, 90%) that solidified upon standing in the freezer. mp 40–42° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.35 (m, 4H), 1.50 (m, 2H), 1.56 (m, 2H), 2.32 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.88 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 4.05 (s, 4H), 4.10 (s, 5H); ¹³C NMR δ 29.4, 29.8, 30.2, 31.3, 31.6, 67.7, 68.8, 69.2, 90.0, 196.0; FAB-MS obsd 344.0908, calcd exact mass 344.0897; Anal. Calcd for C₁₈H₂₄FeOS: C, 62.79; H, 7.03; Found: C, 62.81; H, 7.03.

12-(S-Acetylthio)dodecylferrocene (28)

12-Ferrocenyldodecyl bromide 25 (2.0 g, 4.6 mmol) was treated with potassium thioacetate (0.70 g, 6.0 mmol) for 20 h as described for 27 to form yellow crystals (1.8 g, 93%): mp 45–47° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.27 (s, 18H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 2.32 (m, 2H), 2.33 (s, 3H), 2.87 (m, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.07 (s, 2H), 4.11 (s, 5H); ¹³C NMR δ 29.5, 29.8, 30.2, 30.3, 30.3, 31.3, 31.8, 67.7, 68.8, 69.2, 90.4, 196.8; FAB-MS obsd 428.1851, calcd exact mass 428.1836; Anal. Calcd for C₂₄H₃₆FeOS: C, 67.28; H, 8.47; Found: C, 67.25; H, 8.51.

16-(S-Acetylthio)hexadecylferrocene (29)

16-Ferrocenylhexadecyl bromide 26 (1.1 g, 2.3 mmol) was treated with potassium thioacetate (0.4 g, 3.5 mmol) for 20 h following the same procedure described for 27 to afford yellow crystals (1.0 g, 93%): mp 55–57° C.; ¹H NMR δ 1.25 (s, 22H), 1.51 (m, 2H), 2.30 (m, 2H), 2.32 (s, 3H), 2.86 (m, 2H), 4.04 (s, 2H), 4.05 (s, 2H), 4.09 (s, 5H); ¹³C NMR δ 29.5, 29.8, 30.2, 30.3, 30.3, 31.8, 67.7, 68.8, 69.2, 90.0, 197.5; FAB-MS obsd 484.2518, calcd exact mass 484.2514; Anal. Calcd for C₂₈H₄₄FeOS: C, 69.40; H, 9.15; Found: C, 69.45; H, 9.07.

1-(4-Ferrocenylphenyl)-2-(4-formylphenyl)acetylene (30)

Samples of 4 (500 mg, 1.75 mmol), 4-iodobenzaldehyde (406 mg, 1.75 mmol), CuI (18 mg, 94 μmol) and Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (8 mg, 11 μmol) were placed in a Schlenk flask. The flask was evacuated for 3 min and then the flask was backflushed with argon for 3 min. The process of evacuation and flushing was repeated 3 times. At this point flow rate was increased and the threaded stopcock was removed. Deaerated THF (5 mL) and DIEA (5.0 mL) were added in succession to the flask by gas-tight syringe. The threaded stopcock was replaced, the argon flow rate was reduced and the flask was immersed in an oil bath thermostated at 40° C. The reaction was stopped after 40 h. The mixture was then evaporated and the resulting orange solid was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1). The second orange band comprising the title compound was collected (579 mg, 84.9%). mp 219–220° C.; ¹H NMR δ 4.10 (s, 5H), 4.42 (s, 2H), 4.73 (s, 2H), 7.52 (s, 4H), 7.72, 7.92 (AA′BB′, 4H), 10.07 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR δ 67.3, 70.3, 70.5, 84.6, 89.4, 94.8, 120.2, 126.6, 130.4, 130.6, 132.6, 132.7, 135.9, 141.6, 192.2; EI-MS obsd 390.0696 (M⁺), calcd exact mass 390.0707; Anal. Calcd for C₂₅H₁₈FeO: C, 76.94; H, 4.65; Found: C, 76.75; H, 4.68.

5-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyl]-15-ferrocenyl-10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (33)

Method A

Acetonitrile (250 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH₄Cl (1.34 g, 25 mmol) was added and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 5-mesityldipyrromethane (Lee et al. (1994) Tetrahedron, 50: 11427–11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391–1396) (660 mg, 2.50 mmol), 4-(S-acetylthio)benzaldehyde 31 (Gryko et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 8635–8647] (225 mg, 1.25 mmol) and ferrocenecarboxaldehyde (270 mg, 1.25 mmol) were added followed by BF₃-etherate (32 μL, 0.25 mmol) and the mixture was stirred at 0° C. under Ar. The progress of the reaction was monitored by UV-Visible spectroscopy. After 6 h, DDQ (851 mg, 3.75 mmol) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stirred at rt for 1 h. The reaction mixture was evaporated to one-third of its initial volume and then filtered through a silica pad (CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1). The dark solid was subsequently chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 3:7; CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 5:5). The second green band contained the title porphyrin together with some impurities. A subsequent chromatographic procedure did not improve the product purity (119 mg).

Method B

Samples of 5-mesityldipyrromethane (264 mg, 1.0 mmol), ferro-cenecarboxaldehyde (107 mg, 0.50 mmol) and 31 (90 mg, 0.50 mmol) were dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL, undistilled) and then TFA (0.137 ml, 1.78 mmol) was added slowly over 30 s. The mixture was stirred at rt for 30 min, and then DIEA (0.3 mL, 1.8 mmol) and a solution of p-chloranil (370 mg, 1.5 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred at rt for a further 6 h. Next the reaction mixture was evaporated to one-third of its initial volume and purified as described above to afford 188 mg of the title compound having purity similar to that obtained via method A. LD-MS obsd 945.6, 961.8 [M⁺+15], 905.4 [M⁺-CH₃CO), impurities 762.7 and 1096.8; FAB-MS obsd 880.2839, calcd exact mass 880.2898 (C₅₆H₄₆N₄OSZnFe); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 422, 510, 602 nm.

Zn(II)-5-14-(S-Acetylthio)phenyl]-15-ferrocenyl-10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (Zn-33)

A solution of porphyrin 33 (100 mg, 0.11 mol) in CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL) was treated with a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (498 mg, 2.27 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 16 h. After metalation was complete (TLC), the reaction mixture was washed with water and dried (Na₂SO₄), filtered, concentrated, and chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 6:4) to give the pure title compound [91 mg, 9.4% (method A) and 37% (method B) from aldehyde 31]. ¹H NMR δ 1.87 (s, 12H), 2.57 (s, 3H), 2.67 (s, 6H), 4.24 (s, 5H), 4.79 (s, 2H), 5.52 (s, 2H), 7.31 (s, 6H), 7.77, 8.28 (AA′BB′, 4H), 8.7–8.9 (m, 6H), 10.17 (m, 2H); LD-MS obsd 945.6, 961.8 [M⁺+15], 905.4 [M⁺-CH₃CO]; FAB-MS obsd 942.2073, calcd exact mass 942.2033 (C₅₆H₄₆N₄OSZnFe); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 423, 563, 616 nm.

5-{4-[S-(N-Ethylcarbamoyl)thio]phenyl}-15-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)-10,20-dimesityl-porphyrin (34)

Method A:

Acetonitrile (207 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH₄Cl (1.11 g, 20.7 mmol) was added and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 5-mesityldipyrromethane (546 mg, 2.07 mmol), 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17 (300 mg, 1.03 mmol) and aldehyde 32 (216 mg, 1.03 mmol) were added followed by BF₃-etherate (25 μL, 0.209 mmol) and the mixture was stirred at 0° C. under Ar. The progress of the reaction was monitored by UV-Visible spectroscopy. After 5 h, DDQ (705 mg, 3.11 mmol) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stirred at rt for 1 h. TEA (28.8 μL, 2.07 mmol) was added and the mixture was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1). The dark purple solid was subsequently chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 7:3; CH₂Cl₂). The second purple band (R_(f)=0.54) contained the title porphyrin together with some blue impurities. A subsequent column chromatography procedure did not improve the product purity (34 mg).

Method B:

Samples of 5-mesityldipyrromethane (264 mg, 1.0 mmol), 17 (145 mg, 0.50 mmol) and 32 (105 mg, 0.50 mmol) were dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL, undistilled) and then TFA (0.137 ml, 1.78 mmol) was added slowly over 30 s. The mixture was stirred at rt for 30 min, and then DIEA (0.30 mL, 1.8 mmol) and a solution of p-chloranil (370 mg, 1.5 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred at rt for a further 6 h. Next the reaction mixture was concentrated and purified as described above to afford 101 mg. TLC (CH₂Cl₂), R_(f)=0.6; LD-MS obsd 988.6, 917.4 [M⁺-CH₃CH₂NHCO], impurity 850.0; FAB-MS obsd 985.3434, calcd exact mass 985.3477 (C₆₃H₅₅N₅OSFe); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 419, 517, 553, 593, 648 nm; λ_(abs) 653, 720 nm.

Zinc(II)-5-{4-[S-(N-Ethylcarbamoyl)thio]phenyl}-15-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)-10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (Zn-34)

A solution of 34 (17 mg, 0.017 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (15 mL) was treated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (380 mg, 1.73 mmol) in methanol (10 mL) and the mixture was stirred at rt under argon. TLC analysis (silica, CH₂Cl₂) after 6 h showed no starting material (expected R_(f)=0.58) and the presence of two new components (R_(f)=0.51, R_(f)=0.91). The reaction was stopped by adding 100 mL of satd aq NaHCO₃ and 20 mL of CH₂Cl₂. The aqueous solution was extracted with CH₂Cl₂. The combined CH₂Cl₂ layers were dried (Na₂SO₄), concentrated and the residue was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂). The red band was collected and evaporated, affording [16 mg, 3% (method A) and 19% (method B) (from aldehyde 32)]. TLC (silica, CH₂Cl₂) R_(f)=0.51; ¹H NMR 1.30 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), 1.84 (s, 12H), 2.64 (s, 6H), 3.4–3.6 (m, 2H), 4.24 (s, 5H), 4.47 (s, 2H), 4.91 (s, 2H), 5.60 (s, 1H), 7.29 (s, 4H), 7.84, 8.15 (AA′BB′, 4H), 7.92, 8.28 (AA′BB′, 4H), 8.7–9.1 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1051.2, 979.0 [M⁺-CH₃CH₂NHCO]; FAB-MS obsd 1047.2625, calcd exact mass 1047.2612 (C₆₃H₅₃N₅OSZnFe); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 424, 552, 593 nm; λ_(abs) 610, 650 nm.

5-[4-(S-Acetylthio)phenyl]-15-{4-[2-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)ethynyl]phenyl}-10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (35)

Samples of 5-mesityldipyrromethane (264 mg, 1.0 mmol), aldehyde 30 (195 mg, 0.50 mmol) and aldehyde 32 (105 mg, 0.50 mmol) were dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL, undistilled) and then TFA (0.137 ml, 1.78 mmol) was added slowly over 30 s. The reaction mixture was stirred at rt for 30 min, and then DIEA (0.3 mL, 1.8 mmol) and a solution of p-chloranil (370 mg, 1.5 mmol) in THF (20 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred at rt for a further 6 h. Next the reaction mixture was evaporated to one-third of its initial volume and filtered through a silica pad (CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1). Fractions containing the second purple band were collected and chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1; then CH₂Cl₂) to afford a slightly impure product. A second column (silica, CH₂Cl₂) was performed to obtain 56 mg of pure porphyrin (10.3%). ¹H NMR δ−2.55 (s, 2H); 1.31 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.90 (s, 12H), 2.68 (s, 6H), 3.51 (m, 2H), 4.12 (s, 5H), 4.40 (s, 2H), 4.73 (s, 2H), 5.61 (brt, 1H), 7.34 (s, 6H), 7.56, 7.64 (AA′BB′, 4H), 7.9–8.4 (m, 8H), 8.7–9.0 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1089.0, 1018.0 [M⁺-CH₃CH₂NHCO]; FAB-MS obsd 1085.3766, calcd exact mass 1085.3790 (C₇₁H₅₉N₅OSFe); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 422, 516, 551, 590, 647 nm.

Zn(II)-5-[4-(S-acetylthio)phenyl]-15-{4-[2-(4-ferrocenylphenyl)ethynyl]phenyl}-10,20-dimesitylporphyrin (Zn-35)

A solution of porphyrin 35 (43 mg, 40 μmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL) was treated with a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (430 mg, 1.95 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and the mixture was stirred for 16 h. After metalation was complete, the reaction mixture was washed with water, dried (Na₂SO₄), filtered, concentrated, and chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂) affording a purple solid (32 mg, 70.3%). ¹H NMR δ 1.30 (t, J=7.2 Hz, 3H), 1.87 (s, 12H), 2.67 (s, 6H), 3.4–3.6 (m, 2H), 4.10 (s, 5H), 4.39 (s, 2H), 4.73 (s, 2H), 5.57 (brt, 1H), 7.32 (s, 6H), 7.54, 7.62 (AA′BB′, 4H), 7.9–8.4 (m, 8H), 8.7–9.0 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1154.0, 1082.7 [M⁺-CH₃CH₂NHCO]; FAB-MS obsd 1147.2724, calcd exact mass 1147.2925 (C₇₁H₅₉N₅OSFe); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 423, 549 nm.

5-(4-Ferrocenylphenyl)dipyrromethane (36)

Following a general procedure [Lee, C.-H., et al., Tetrahedron 1994, 50, 11427–11440; Littler et al. (1999) J. Org. Chem., 64: 1391–1396), pyrrole (3.00 mL, 43.2 mmol) and 4-ferrocenylbenzaldehyde 17 (0.50 g, 1.7 mmol) were added to a 25 mL flask and degassed with a stream of argon. Then TFA (13.0 μL) was added and the mixture was stirred under argon at rt for 10 min and then quenched with 0.1 M NaOH. Ethyl acetate was then added and the phases were separated. The organic phase was washed with water, dried (Na₂SO₄), and concentrated to afford an orange oil. The oil was chromatographed using centrifugal preparative TLC (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1) to afford a yellow oil (660 mg, 94.3%). ¹H NMR δ 4.19 (s, 5H), 4.45 (s, 2H), 4.75 (s, 2H), 5.45 (s, 1H), 6.05 (s, 2H), 6.30 (m, 2H), 6.71 (m, 2H), 7.22, 7.53 (AA′BB′, J=8.5 Hz, 4H), 7.94 (brs, 2H); ¹³C NMR δ 61.3, 67.4, 69.8, 70.5, 86.0, 108.1, 109.1, 118.2, 127.1, 129.3, 133.5, 138.6, 140.6; EI-MS obsd 406.1144 (M⁺), calcd exact mass 406.1132 (C₂₅H₂₂N₂Fe).

Zn(II)-5,15-Bis(4-Ferrocenylphenyl)-10-[4-methylphenyl]-20[-4-(S-acetylthio)-phenyl]porphyrin (Zn-37)

Method A:

Acetonitrile (80 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH₄Cl (430 mg, 7.90 mmol) was added, and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 36 (321 mg, 0.79 mmol), 4-methylbenzaldehyde (47 μL, 0.40 mmol) and aldehyde 31 (72 mg, 0.40 mmol) were added, followed by BF₃-etherate (11 μL, 0.08 mmol), and the mixture was stirred at 0° C. under Ar. After 6 h DDQ (270 mg, 0.75 mmol) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stirred at rt for 1 h. TLC revealed a lack of red-fluorescent species, thus CH₂Cl₂ (50 mL) was added and the mixture was stirred at rt overnight. Removal of the solvents gave a black solid which was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes, 1:1). The first band collected was chromatographed (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes 7:3, then CH₂Cl₂). The second purple band contained the title porphyrin [LD-MS obsd 1075.1; FAB-MS obsd 1070.2435, calcd exact mass 1070.2404 (C₆₇H₅₀N₄Fe₂OS)] together with a significant amount of impurities. Subsequent chromatography procedures with various eluants did not improve the purity. The mixture (1.5 mg, 1.3 μmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (10 mL) and a solution of Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (29.0 mg, 130 μmol) in methanol (5 mL) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred overnight at rt. After metalation was complete, the reaction mixture was washed with water, dried and concentrated. Chromatography (silica, CH₂Cl₂/hexanes) gave 1.5 mg (0.33% from dipyrromethane 36).

Method B:

Acetonitrile (50 mL) was degassed with a stream of Ar for 10 min. Freshly ground NH₄Cl (268 mg, 5.00 mmol) was added, and the flask was placed in an ice-bath and cooled under Ar. Samples of 36 (203 mg, 0.50 mmol), 4-methylbenzaldehyde (30 μL, 0.25 mmol) and aldehyde 31 (45 mg, 0.25 mmol) were added, followed by BF₃-etherate (7 μL, 0.055 mmol), and the mixture was stirred at 0° C. under Ar. After 6 h, DIEA (10 μL, 0.055 mmol) and a solution of p-chloranil (185 mg, 0.75 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added. The ice-bath was removed and the mixture was stirred at rt overnight. An analogous purification process afforded 29 mg, comprised of the product and a significant amount of impurities. The mixture was subsequently metalated with Zn(OAc)₂.2H₂O (595 mg, 2.7 mmol) to obtain 8.8 mg (yield 3.1% from dipyrromethane 36) of pure zinc porphyrin. ¹H NMR δ 2.60 (s, 3H), 2.72 (s, 3H), 4.26 (s, 5H), 4.49 (s, 2H), 4.94 (s, 2H), 7.5–8.4 (m, 4×AA′BB′, 16H), 8.95–9.10 (m, 8H); LD-MS obsd 1138.7, 1153.9 [M⁺+15], 1095.5 [M⁺-CH₃CO], 966.0; FAB-MS obsd 1132.1526, calcd exact mass 1132.1529 (C₆₇H₄₈N₄Fe₂OS); λ_(abs) (CH₂Cl₂) 421, 551 nm.

Electrochemistry.

Both the solution and SAM electrochemical studies were conducted using the same instrumentation, techniques, and preparation strategies as described above. The solvent was CH₂Cl₂; tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate (TBAH, 0.1 M) (Aldrich, recrystallized three times from methanol and dried under vacuum at 110° C.) served as supporting electrolyte. The potentials reported are vs Ag/Ag⁺; E_(1/2)(FeCp₂/FeCp₂ ⁺)=0.19 V.

It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. 

1. An apparatus for storing data, said apparatus comprising: a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium having a multiplicity of different and distinguishable oxidation states wherein data is stored in said oxidation states by the addition or withdrawal of one or more electrons from said storage medium via the electrically coupled electrode; wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule attached to said electrode through a linker selected from the group consisting of the linker component of molecules “A” through “I” of FIG.
 34. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium stores data at a density of at least one bit per molecule.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having at least two different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is covalently linked to said electrode.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is electrically coupled to said electrode through a linker.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is covalently linked to said electrode through a linker.
 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein said linker is a thiol linker.
 9. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed in the proximity of said electrode such that electrons can pass from said storage medium to said electrode.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric material imbedded with counterions.
 11. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium and said electrode are fully encapsulated in an integrated circuit.
 12. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is electronically coupled to a second fixed electrode that is a reference electrode.
 13. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is present on a single plane in said device.
 14. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is present at a multiplicity of storage locations.
 15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said storage locations are present on a single plane in said device.
 16. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said apparatus comprises multiple planes and said storage locations are present on multiple planes of said device.
 17. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said storage locations range from about 1024 to about 4096 different locations.
 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein each location is addressed by a single electrode.
 19. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein each location is addressed by two electrodes.
 20. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said electrode is connected to a voltage source.
 21. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said voltage source is the output of an integrated circuit.
 22. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said electrode is connected to a device to read the oxidation state of said storage medium.
 23. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device is selected from the group consisting of a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, and a potentiometric device.
 24. The apparatus of claim 23, wherein said device is an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter.
 25. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device provides a Fourier transform of the output signal from said electrode.
 26. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device refreshes the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading said oxidation state.
 27. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said different and distinguishable oxidation states of said storage medium can be set by a voltage difference no greater than about 2 volts.
 28. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said storage medium is selected from the group consisting of a porphyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2′-bipyridyl, a 4,4′-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide.
 29. The apparatus of claim 28, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule selected from the group consisting of a porphyrin, an expanded porphyrin, a contracted porphyrin, a ferrocene, a linear porphyrin polymer, and a porphyrin array.
 30. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a porphyrinic macrocycle substituted at a β- position or at a meso- position.
 31. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula:

wherein S¹, S², S³, and S⁴ are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; M¹, M², M³, and M⁴ are independently selected metals; K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, K⁸, K⁹, K¹⁰, K¹¹, K¹², K¹³, K¹⁴, K¹⁵, and K¹⁶ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; J¹, J², and J³ are independently selected linkers; L¹, L², L³, and L⁴ are present or absent and, when present are independently selected linkers; X¹, X², X³, and X⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; and E¹ and E² are terminating substituents selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; and said molecule has at least two different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 32. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein said molecule has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 33. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein M¹, M², M³, and M⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Ga, Pb, and Sn.
 34. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein J¹, J², and J³ are independently selected from the group consisting of 4,4′-diphenylethyne, 4,4′-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4′-biphenyl, 1,4-phenylene, 4,4′-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4′-azobenzene, 4,4′-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4″-terphenyl.
 35. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein L¹—X¹, L²—X², L³—X³, and L⁴—X⁴ are independently present or absent and, when present, are independently selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.
 36. The apparatus of claim 32, wherein K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, K⁸, K⁹, K¹⁰, K¹¹, K¹², K¹³, K¹⁴, K¹⁵, and K¹⁶ are the same; M¹ and M³ are the same; M² and M⁴ are the same and different from M¹ and M³ S¹ and S² are the same; and S³ and S⁴ are the same and different from S¹ and S².
 37. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein said apparatus comprises a molecule having the formula:

wherein Ar¹ and Ar² are independently aromatic groups; and X¹, X², X³, and X⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of H or a substrate.
 38. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein said storage medium comprises a porphyrinic macrocycle containing at least two porphyrins of equal energies held apart from each other at a spacing less than about 50 Å such that said molecule has an odd hole oxidation state permitting the hole to hop between said two porphyrins and wherein said odd hole oxidation state is different from and distinguishable from another oxidation state of said porphyrinic macrocycle.
 39. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula:

wherein: J¹, J², J³, and J⁴ are independently selected linkers that permit electron transfer between the porphyrinic macrocycles; P¹ and P² are porphyrinic macrocycles selected to have the same oxidation state; P⁴ and P⁶ are porphyrinic macrocycles selected to have the same oxidation state; P² has an oxidation potential greater than the oxidation potential of P¹ or P³; P⁵ has an oxidation potential greater than the oxidation potential of P⁴ or P⁶; and Q is a linker.
 40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of 1,4-bis(4-terphen-4″-yl)butadiyne or a tetrakis(arylethyne), a linker comprising 1,12-carboranyl (C₂B₁₀H₁₂), 1,10-carboranyl (C₂B₈H₁₀), [n]staffane, 1,4-cubanediyl, 1,4-bicyclo[2.2.2]octanediyl, phenylethynyl, and a linker comprising a p-phenylene unit.
 41. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula:

wherein M¹ and M² are independently selected metals; S¹, S², S³, S⁴, S⁵, S⁶, S⁷, and S⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, and K⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L¹ and L² are independently selected linkers; and X¹ and X² are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate.
 42. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein S¹, S², S³, S⁵, S⁶, and S⁷ are the same; S⁴ and S⁸ are the same; K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, and K⁸ are the same J¹, J², J³ and J⁴ are the same; and M¹ and M² are different.
 43. The apparatus of claim 42, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula:

wherein X¹ and X² are independently selected from the group consisting of H and a substrate.
 44. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having three different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 45. The apparatus of claim 44, wherein said molecule has the formula:

wherein F is selected from the group consisting of a ferrocene, a substituted ferrocene, a metalloporphyrin, and a metallochlorin; J¹ is a linker; M is a metal; S¹ and S² are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; and said molecule has at least three different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 46. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein said molecule has the formula:


47. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein said molecule has the formula:

wherein M² is a metal; K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, and K⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, S, O, Se, Te, and CH; S³, S⁴, and S⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; and L—X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.
 48. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein said molecule has the formula:

wherein M² is a metal; K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, and K⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; S³ is selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts and L—X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.
 49. The apparatus of claim 46, wherein said molecule is


50. The apparatus of claim 47, wherein said molecule is


51. The apparatus of claim 48, wherein said molecule is


52. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having five different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 53. The apparatus of claim 52, wherein said molecule has the formula:

wherein M¹ is a metal; F¹, F², and F³ are independently selected ferrocenes or substituted ferrocenes; J¹, J², and J³ are independently selected linkers; K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate.
 54. The apparatus of claim 53, wherein K¹, K², K³ and K⁴ are the same; M¹ is a metal selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Pb, Al, Ga, and Sn; J² J² and J³ are the same; and F¹, F², and F³ are all different.
 55. The apparatus of claim 54, wherein said molecule is


56. The apparatus of claim 45, wherein J¹, J², and J³ are selected from the group consisting of 4,4′-diphenylethyne, 4,4′-diphenylbutadiyne, 4,4′-biphenyl, 1,4-phenylene, 4,4′-stilbene, 1,4-bicyclooctane, 4,4′-azobenzene, 4,4′-benzylideneaniline, and 4,4″-terphenyl.
 57. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule having the formula:

wherein L is a linker; M is a metal; S¹ and S² are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate.
 58. The apparatus of claim 57, wherein said molecule is selected from the group consisting of:

wherein X is a substrate.
 59. The apparatus of claim 57, wherein —L—X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.
 60. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula:

wherein S¹, S², S³, and S¹ are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; M¹, M², M³, and M⁴ are independently selected metals; K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, K⁸, K⁹, K¹⁰, K¹¹, K¹², K¹³, K¹⁴, K¹⁵, and K¹⁶ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; J¹, J², and J³ are independently selected linkers; L¹, L², L³, and L⁴ are present or absent and, when present are independently selected linkers at least one of which is selected from the group consisting of the linker component of molecules “A” through “I” of FIG. 34; and X¹, X², X³, and X⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate; and E¹ and E² are terminating substituents; and said molecule has at least two different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 61. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula:

wherein M¹ and M² are independently selected metals; S¹, S², S³, S⁴, S⁵, S⁶, S⁷, and S⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl; K¹, K², K³, K⁴, K⁵, K⁶, K⁷, and K⁸ are independently selected from the group consisting of are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L¹ and L² are independently selected linkers; and X¹ and X² are independently selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate.
 62. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula:

wherein F¹ is selected from the group consisting of a ferrocene, a substituted ferrocene, a metalloporphyrin, and a metallochlorin; J¹ is a linker; M is a metal; S¹ and S² are substituents independently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts; K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate, and said molecule has at least three different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 63. A molecule for the storage of information, said molecule having the formula:

wherein M is a metal; S¹ and S² are selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, alkylthio, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyridyl, cyano, thiocyanato, nitro, amino, alkylamino, acyl, sulfoxyl, sulfonyl, imido, amido, and carbamoyl wherein said substituents provide a redox potential range of less than about 2 volts: L is a linker; and X is selected from the group consisting of a substrate, a reactive site that can covalently couple to a substrate, and a reactive site that can ionically couple to a substrate.
 64. A method of storing data, said method comprising: i) providing an apparatus according to claim 1; and ii) applying a voltage to said electrode at sufficient current to set an oxidation state of said storage medium.
 65. The method of claim 64, wherein said voltage ranges up to about 2 volts.
 66. The method of claim 64, wherein said voltage is the output of an integrated circuit.
 67. The method of claim 64, wherein said voltage is the output of a logic gate.
 68. The method of claim 64, further comprising detecting the oxidation state of said storage medium and thereby reading out the data stored therein.
 69. The method of claim 68, wherein said detecting the oxidation state of the storage medium further comprises refreshing the oxidation state of the storage medium.
 70. The method of claim 68, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the time domain.
 71. The method of claim 68, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the frequency domain.
 72. The method of claim 71, wherein said detecting comprises performing a Fourier transform on said readout signal.
 73. The method of claim 68, wherein said detecting utilizes a voltammetric method.
 74. The method of claim 68, wherein said detecting utilizes impedance spectroscopy.
 75. The method of claim 68, wherein said detecting comprises exposing said storage medium to an electric field to produce an electric field oscillation having characteristic frequency and detecting said characteristic frequency.
 76. The method of claim 64, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule selected from the group consisting of a porphyrinic macrocycle, a metallocene, a linear polyene, a cyclic polyene, a heteroatom-substituted linear polyene, a heteroatom-substituted cyclic polyene, a tetrathiafulvalene, a tetraselenafulvalene, a metal coordination complex, a buckyball, a triarylamine, a 1,4-phenylenediamine, a xanthene, a flavin, a phenazine, a phenothiazine, an acridine, a quinoline, a 2,2′-bipyridyl, a 4,4′-bipyridyl, a tetrathiotetracene, and a peri-bridged naphthalene dichalcogenide.
 77. The method of claim 76, wherein said storage medium comprises a molecule selected from the group consisting of a porphyrin, an expanded porphyrin, a contracted porphyrin, a ferrocene, a linear porphyrin polymer, and a porphyrin array.
 78. The method of claim 76, wherein said storage medium comprises a porphyrinic macrocycle substituted at a β- position or at a meso- position.
 79. The method of claim 76, wherein said molecule has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 80. In a computer system, a memory device, said memory device comprising the apparatus of claim
 1. 81. A computer system comprising a central processing unit, a display, a selector device, and a memory device, said memory device comprising the apparatus of claim
 1. 82. An apparatus for storing data, said apparatus comprising: a fixed electrode electrically coupled to a storage medium comprising a storage molecule having the formula:

wherein K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, S, Se, Te, and CH; M is a metal or (H,H); S¹, S², and S³ are indepently selected from the group consisting of aryl, phenyl, cycloalkyl, alkyl, alkoxy, halogen, alkylthio, alkoxy, perfluoroalkyl, perfluoroaryl, pyidyl, nitrile, nitro, amino, and alkylamino; L is present or absent and, when present, is a linker; and X is a substrate or a reactive site that can covalently or ionically couple to a substrate.
 83. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium stores data at a density of at least one bit per molecule.
 84. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium has at least two different and distinguishable non-neutral oxidation states.
 85. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium has at least eight different and distinguishable oxidation states.
 86. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage molecule is covalently linked to said electrode.
 87. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage molecule is electrically coupled to said electrode through a linker.
 88. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage molecule is covalently linked to said electrode through a linker.
 89. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein said linker is a thiol linker.
 90. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed in the proximity of said electrode such that electrons can pass from said storage medium to said electrode.
 91. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium is juxtaposed to a dielectric material imbedded with counterions.
 92. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium and said electrode are fully encapsulated in an integrated circuit.
 93. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium is electronically coupled to a second fixed electrode that is a reference electrode.
 94. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium is present on a single plane in said device.
 95. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said storage medium is present at a multiplicity of storage locations.
 96. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said storage locations are present on a single plane in said device.
 97. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said apparatus comprises multiple planes and said storage locations are present on multiple planes of said device.
 98. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein said storage locations range from about 1024 to about 4096 different locations.
 99. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein each location is addressed by a single electrode.
 100. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein each location is addressed by two electrodes.
 101. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said electrode is connected to a voltage source.
 102. The apparatus of claim 20, wherein said voltage source is the output of an integrated circuit.
 103. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said electrode is connected to a device to read the oxidation state of said storage medium.
 104. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device is selected from the group consisting of a voltammetric device, an amperometric device, and a potentiometric device.
 105. The apparatus of claim 23, wherein said device is an impedance spectrometer or a sinusoidal voltammeter.
 106. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device provides a Fourier transform of the output signal from said electrode.
 107. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein said device refreshes the oxidation state of said storage medium after reading said oxidation state.
 108. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein said different and distinguishable oxidation states of said storage medium can be set by a voltage difference no greater than about 2 volts.
 109. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Ni, Pd, Pt, Co, Rh, Ir, Mn, B, Al, Pb, Ga, and Sn.
 110. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein M is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Mg, and (H,H).
 111. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein S is selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C₆F₅, 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, and n-pentyl.
 112. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of CONH(Et), COCH₃, and H.
 113. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein L—X is selected from the group consisting of 4-(2-(4-mercaptophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-mercaptomethylphenyl, 4-hydroselenophenyl, 4-(2-(4-hydroselenophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl, 4-hydrotellurophenyl, and 4-(2-(4-hydrotellurophenyl)ethynyl)phenyl.
 114. The apparatus of claim 82, wherein S¹, S², and S³ are all the same; K¹, K², K³, and K⁴ are all N; and L is p-thiophenyl.
 115. The apparatus of claim 114, wherein M is Zn or (H,H).
 116. The apparatus of claim 115, wherein S¹, S², and S³ are selected from the group consisting of mesityl, C₆F₅, 2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl, and n-pentyl.
 117. The apparatus of claim 115, wherein X is selected from the group consisting of CONH(Et), COCH₃, and H.
 118. A method of storing data, said method comprising: i) providing an apparatus according to claim 1 or 82; and ii) applying a voltage to said electrode at sufficient current to set an oxidation state of said storage medium.
 119. The method of claim 118, wherein said voltage ranges up to about 2 volts.
 120. The method of claim 118, wherein said voltage is the output of an integrated circuit.
 121. The method of claim 118, wherein said voltage is the output of a logic gate.
 122. The method of claim 118, further comprising detecting the oxidation state of said storage medium and thereby reading out the data stored therein.
 123. The method of claim 122, wherein said detecting the oxidation state of the storage medium further comprises refreshing the oxidation state of the storage medium.
 124. The method of claim 122, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the time domain.
 125. The method of claim 122, wherein said detecting comprises analyzing a readout signal in the frequency domain.
 126. The method of claim 122, wherein said detecting comprises performing a Fourier transform on said readout signal.
 127. The method of claim 122, wherein said detecting utilizes a voltammetric method. 